Microaggression (pronounced mahy-kroh-uh-gresh-uhn)
(1)
A casual comment or action directed at a marginalized, minority or other
non-dominant group that (often) unintentionally but unconsciously reinforces a
stereotype and can be construed as offensive.
(2)
The act of discriminating against a non-dominant group by means of such
comments or actions.
1970: The construct was micro- + aggression. The word was coined by African-American Chester Middlebrook Pierce (1927-2016), a former Professor of Education and Psychiatry at Harvard Medical School. Micro (small, microscopic; magnifying; one
millionth) was a word-forming element from the New Latin micro- (small), from the Ancient Greek μικρός (mikrós) (small). The origin
is disputed between etymologists, the traditional view being it was from the primitive Indo-European (s)meyg- & (s)mēyg- (small, thin,
delicate) and was cognate with the Old English smicor (beauteous, beautiful, elegant, fair, fine, tasteful), source
also of the Modern English smicker
and related to the German mickrig. However, there’s a highly technical
discussion within the profession, hinged around the unexplained “k” in the Greek and there’s the
suggestion of pre-Greek origin on the basis of variation between initial /m/ and /sm/, as well as the variant forms μικός (mikós) and μικκός (mikkós). Aggression, dating from 1605–1615, was from the
French aggression, from the Latin aggressionem (nominative aggressio (a going to, an attack)), a
noun of action from past participle stem of aggredi
(to approach; attack) the construct being ad (to) + gradi (past participle gressus
(to step)) from gradus (a step). The Classical Latin aggressiōn (stem of aggressiō),
was equivalent to aggress(us) + iōn derived from aggrēdi (to
attack). The psychological sense of
"hostile or destructive behavior" had its origin in early psychiatry,
first noted in English in 1912 in a translation of work by the Austrian neurologist and the founder of psychoanalysis, Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). While not exactly synonymous, microassault and microinequity are similar concepts, the most closely related verb being microinvalidate (to engage in microinvalidation, to make a relatively small statement or action (microaggression) that negates another person's experience, thoughts or feelings). Microaggression, microaggressiveness, microaggressor & microaggressee are nouns, microaggress, microaggressed & microaggressing are verbs, microaggressive is an adjective and microaggressively is an adverb; the noun plural is microaggressions.
Dr Chester Middlebrook Pierce (1927-2016).
Microaggression
is an adaptable and possibly infinitely variable concept that probably most
belongs in sociology; typically, it's defined as any of the small-scale verbal
or physical interactions between those of different races, cultures, beliefs,
or genders that are (perhaps sometimes generously) assumed to carry no malicious intent but which can be
interpreted as revealing an underlying (and often unconscious) bias. The criteria
can be both objective and subjective and it’s noted compliments or comments intended to be positive can be defined as microaggressions if interpreted as patronizing or perpetuating stereotypes (racial, gender, sexual orientation, class, occupational, geographical etc). Probably, the only "safe" identity-based categorizations are now those purely statistical: average heights by nationality and such although such is the sensitivity, the recommendation of many is now wholly to avoid anything that possibly could be construed as a microaggression, the only exceptions being those directed at groups defined as "privileged" (white people, Christians, cisgender, heterosexual males etc). Very much a "spectrum" word, microaggression began life as a defensive shield but has in recent years attracted criticism (from both left and right) because it was able to be weaponized in "cancellation culture". The standard psychology texts suggest the behavior
manifests in three forms:
Microassault: An explicit racial derogation
which can be verbal or nonverbal which can include labelling, avoidant
behavior and purposeful discriminatory actions.
Microinsult: Communications that convey
rudeness or insensitivity and demean a person's racial heritage or identity;
subtle snubs which may be unknown to the perpetrator; hidden insulting messages
to the recipient of color.
Microinvalidation: Communications that exclude,
negate, or nullify the psychological thoughts, feelings, or experiential
reality of a person belonging to a particular group.
The
concept emerged to address the underlying racism that endured even after
overt, deliberate expressions of racism (at least against defined minorities) had become unacceptable in polite society. It held that microaggressions generally
happened below the level of awareness of well-intentioned members of the
dominant culture and were different from acts of intentional bigotry (such as the use of racist epithets) because the those committing microaggressions often intend no offense and are unaware they are causing
harm. That wasn't exactly a Golgothaesque "forgive them for they know not what they do" but in the abstract did position the dominant (and not of necessity majority) culture as normal with minorities treated as aberrant or
pathological.
Although
the word’s origin lay in the politics of race and ethnicity, it proved readily
adaptable to other areas such as gender, sexual orientation, mental illness,
disability and age. Within academic sociology, there’s a (typically) highly technical debate about the nature of microaggression
and intersectionality at the cross-cutting cleavages of non-dominant
groups. As regards the media, the
discipline had a well-refined model to describe how microaggressions were
either reinforced or encouraged by a news and entertainment industry that both reflected and was controlled by the hegemony of the dominant culture.
The sudden shock of the emergence of social media has changed things (diversity of source and content) but the main effect has been to balkanize: While there are places where microaggressions will not be tolerated, there are others where such things are routine and some where microaggressions are about the mildest forms of racism and such. To date, much work in
exploring this area has been impressionistic and it’s not clear if the
analytical metrics, where they exist, are sufficiently robust for theories to be coherent beyond the sense of constant "mission creep". In a sense, social media and the development of DEI (diversity, equity and inclusion) are synergistic with the maintenance and critique of microaggressions one of many elements in the culture wars.
As an
indication of the how things have changed, in 1939 the terms “paleface” and “redskin”
were in 1939 appropriated for use in literary criticism by Russian-born (in
modern-day Ukraine) Jewish-American literary critic and essayist Philip Rahv
(1908–1973). What in retrospect makes
that most interesting was Rahv was not a kind of “proto-MAGA” (Make America
Great Again) figure from the Republican Party’s far-right (a faction that definitely
existed in 1939 although different labels were applied) but was of the “left”,
emphasizing the virtues of cosmopolitanism and Marxist analysis, one irony in
his casual use of “paleface” and “redskin” being his advocacy of “breaking down”
ethnic and racial barriers. He was in
the early 1930s a member of the ACP (American Communist Party) but, trans-nationally,
long-suppressed fissiparous forces had been unleashed by comrade Stalin
(1878-1953; Soviet leader 1924-1953) and Rahv in 1937 was expelled from the ACP
by the dominant Stalinist Popular Front faction, condemned as a “Trotskyite” (a
follower the exiled Russian comrade Leon Trotsky (1879-1940; founder in 1938 of
the Fourth International). His political
activities in the US for a while continued but by the 1950s he’d become one of “The God that Failed”
ex-communists and, after a brief flirtation with the “New Left” (or rather what
he thought the New Left should have been), he retreated to literature to wage a
low-intensity campaign against structuralism.
One of
General LeMay’s “civilizing influences”, the Boeing B-29 Superfortress Enola
Gay that delivered the first of the two nuclear weapons (thus far) used in
conflicts. It’s now on display in the
Smithsonian Institution's National Air and Space Museum, Dulles International
Airport, Chantilly, Virginia.
The
splicing of the planet's “races” into “civilized”, “barbarian” and “savages”
was very much a thing of nineteenth century European thought (although the notion
existed also in Imperial China, the definitely very civilized mandarins there appalled by “barbarians”
such as the British). While the terms in
this context probably originated in casual use, as the “scientific methods” of
the Enlightenment became more generally applied, the notion was taken up, systematized
and in some cases codified (with anatomical illustrations) by ethnographers, anthropologists,
academic physicians, palaeontologists and others, the most notorious
application probably the use in the pseudo-science of eugenics, a “discipline”
to some so persuasive its echo continues on both sides of the Atlantic to be
heard in the twenty-first century. The
concept of civilization (very much equated with “Western”) has long been a great
concern of white supremacists and although the composition of “threats to its
survival” does shift, it’s perceived always to be under assault. Some have offered solutions. US General Curtis LeMay (1906–1990; Chief of
Staff of the USAF (US Air Force) 1961-1965) once remarked to a colleague: “Empirical evidence
suggests the most successful way to civilize a nation is to A-bomb it…twice.” It was said in making the observation he
seemed “at
least half-serious” and it had been Boeing B-29 Superfortresses
under his command that in August 1946 had dropped atomic bombs on Hiroshima
& Nagasaki so the general likely felt entitled to be proud of his
contribution to that civilizing influence.
A confessed Freemason, (a cult that can hardly be said much to have improved civilization), General LeMay was vice-presidential running mate
on the 1968 ticket of notorious racist and segregationist George Wallace
(1919-1998; governor (Democratic Party) of Alabama 1963–1967, 1971–1979 &
1983–1987) and, by historic standards, the duo enjoyed success, the AIP (American
Independent Party) ticket gaining 13.5% of the popular vote, carrying five
states for 46 votes in the Electoral College.
Allen's "Red Skins" and "Chicos": On supermarket shelves in Australia until 2020.
It is of
course now unthinkable a figure of the left (liberals, progressives etc), Trotskyites
or otherwise, would be so casually microaggressive as to take terms so vested
with racism as “paleface” and “redskin” so they could, with no acknowledgment
of the history, be re-purposed as devices in literary criticism. However, “The past is a foreign country: they do things differently there” and in the US in 1939, to do such a thing was
unremarkable, an indication of the cultural currents underpinning society with
the use of language both a product and part of the construct. Paleface (the construct being pale + face) came from US English and appeared in the anthropological
record as early as 1797 (the origin uncertain) but seems not to have entered
general use until the early 1920s. The
origin is uncertain but it was supposedly a calque from a Native American
language; the form presumably coined when those of the first nations
encountered Europeans. The earliest verified use of the
word redskin (the construct being red + skin) dates from 1769 although despite documents
from the 1580s referring to the skin-tone of indigenous Americans as “red”,
that use by European explorers and settlers was not consistent and in some
instances may have been a reference to the use of red “paint” used to adorn the
face and upper-body. “Paleface” has been
used as an intended slur against white people (with little apparent effect) but
“redskin” definitely is an ethnic slur offensive to Native Americans although
the record suggest than until around the mid-nineteenth century it was neutral
and merely descriptive before ascending the “linguistic treadmill”. Use puts it now well beyond being a
microaggression.
The re-brand, 2020.
Allen's "Red Skins" and "Chicos" were in 2020 re-named "Red Rippers" and "Cheekies" respectively. In
the US, it was in 2020 the NFL (National Football League) team the Washington Redskins retired the name
used since 1933, adopting Washington
Football Team before in 2022 settling on a re-branding as Commanders. The team's administration, when announcing the name-change, made no mention of the preceding controversy, nor the pressure from corporations, something most analysts suggested prompted the change more than any of the representations by Native American communities. According to the Allen's, the recipes for the lollies remained “unchanged” and thus far Streets’ Golden Gaytime (sold in New Zealand as the Cookie Crumble) ice cream snack has survived the linguistic treadmill.
The meme features Eric Abetz (b 1958; Liberal Party senator for Tasmania,
Australia 1994-2022, Treasurer of Tasmania since 2024). A student of Leviticus, Mr Abetz does not
approve of any form of gaynessness. First sold in 1970, and in
general use clipped usually “Gaytime”, the confectionery is a toffee and
vanilla ice cream, dipped in compound chocolate with a heavy sprinkling of large
“crumbs” of vanilla biscuit, all on a wooden paddlepop-stick. Although by 1970 “gay” was in use in the
context of “male homosexuals”, it had not in Australian society gained critical
mass and there’s nothing to suggest the name was then chosen for reasons other
than the historic association of “gay” with “happy” and certainly the connotations
later attached to “golden” by the gay community would have been unknown to
most. The company in the 1980s anyway
embraced the possibilities with advertising tag lines such as “It's hard to have
a Gaytime on your own” and complaints about the name in the new
century received scant support from even gay-rights activists.
In 1939, Rahv used “paleface” and “redskin” to distinguish between what he called “two
poles”; his sense was of the diametrically opposed “north & south” but his
model was stylistic and thematic rather than geographic (and really not quite an antinomy
as some have suggested). The polarization
as defined by Rahv had him group writers according to their attitude, style,
subject matter and such, Nathaniel Hawthorne (1804–1864), Herman Melville
(1819–1891) and Henry James (1843-1916) classified as “palefaces” while Walt
Whitman (1819–1892), and Mark Twain (1835-1910) were “redskins”. In Rahv’s literary world view, palefaces had
cultured and patrician attitudes, wrote in a mannered style using symbolism
and explored “lofty” themes with great complexity. The redskins wrote works of the rugged men of frontier life or the working class, criminals and “low lifes” in the unpleasant
parts of towns and cities. He didn’t
seem to suggest writing in a colloquial and naturalistic way couldn’t be interpolated
into thematically complex literary texts, just that it was inevitable a “down market” cast of characters and places they frequented would shape the work.
So Rahv saw palefaces as “civilized” and redskins as “barbarians”; presumably
he’d have thought “savages” to be “non-literary” and thus “beyond the pale” as it were.
Of those Americans who came later, categorization must be speculative
but can be fun.
Use of "Eskimo" definitely can be deemed microaggressive. While ice-cream lovers can still buy "Gaytimes", they had to adjust to the "Eskimo Pie" being renamed (variously "Edy's Pie" or "Polar Pie"). It remains to be seen if the use of polar bears in some of the new packaging triggers controversy. The creatures do appear in aspects of Inuit culture and religion and it's not clear if permission for use has been sought.
William
Faulkner (1897–1962) and Kurt Vonnegut (1922–2007) both seem redskins and Norman Mailer (1923–2007) clearly was no paleface though he might have thought being filed
with the barbarians an effete slight on his savagery. Gore Vidal (1925–2012) was a redskin who really wanted to be a paleface (and
never stopped trying) while Philip Roth (1933–2018) was such a paleface he
never quite mastered the “redskin mode” despite the occasional heroic attempt. John Updike (1932–2009) was a paleface but
the problem inherent in assigning writers with a hefty oeuvre to polarized
categories is that at the margins their writing can “straddle” and sometimes
those margins are wide. That’s why
plausible cases can be made arguing both Bernard Malamud (1914–1986) and Saul
Bellow (1915–2005) at times at least “tended” to either pole. What Rahv would have made of Faulkner in 1949
and Bellow in 1976 being awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature while Updike
and Roth were ignored (despite the latter engaging in self-promotion not far
short of Donald Trump’s (b 1946; POTUS 2017-2021 and since 2025) auto-advocacy to
be the Peace Prize laureate) would be interesting to know but safely can it be
imagined he’d have thought the entire Nobel Committee redskins after in 2016 they
conferred the honor in literature on musician Bob Dylan (b 1941). Maybe it was women of the Swedish Academy (the body that chooses the Literature laureates) who vetoed Roth; in all he wrote of women (and it was a lot), Roth revealed much about himself but little about them, despite the usually elegant internal logic. Rahv was anyway appalled literature appeared
to exist in such a dichotomy and, being an old Trotskyite who never quite
stopped taking seriously Karl Marx’s (1818-1883) politics, longed for a world
where folk wrote like Marcel Proust (1871-1922) or Thomas Mann (1875–1955), the
latter at least acknowledged in 1929 by the Nobel Committee.
1958
Studebaker Scotsman advertisement.
There was in 1957 nothing unusual or
offensive in Studebaker naming a car “Scotsman” and it would have been
well-understood as a reference to the car’s low purchase price and (alleged)
TCO (total cost of ownership). Scotsman
buyers could even save a little more were they prepared to forgo the extravagance of chrome bumpers and choose the "delete option" of painted units; Mercedes-Benz also once offered that on taxi
versions of a number of utilitarian sedans, the most produced the W115s (1968-1976). Other manufacturers used the same concept as
Studebaker: Citroën ID vs DS, Cadillac Calais vs de Ville etc, some including
fewer features and simpler trim, some also changing the mechanical
specification but the principle was always: same size, less stuff, lower price. The name "Scotsman" was picking up on the reputation of
the Scots for frugality and it would have been thought something neutral at worst
and more likely positive, thriftiness in the early post-war US still generally thought a virtue despite the best attempts of capitalism to encourage consumer gluttony; as fat overtook the land, things would change. Technically, such use
would now fulfil the criteria of a “microaggression” even if deployed in a way making clear it’s being intended as a compliment. Scots can of course use the trope of
themselves and even if used by others, as race-based microaggressions go, it’s probably at the "lower range" of offensiveness, those applied to “white
people”, rarely noticed and certainly not grounds for cancellation. Still, by the 2020s, it’s highly unlikely a
car company would now name a car a “Scotsman” and certainly not if it was a “stripper”
(ie a low-cost model with minimal standard equipment).
Quite when the term "stripper" (in that context) vanished from commercial use can’t be
certain but it would have occurred later in the twentieth century and certainly
after 1968 when Car Life magazine, reviewing the new Plymouth Road Runner, called
the stripped-down, low-priced muscle car: “a sort of Scotsman’s supercar”. As well as a relic of linguistic use, Car
Life’s test was interesting because unlike many of its contemporaries that often conducted tests using vehicles tweaked by manufacturers or dealers for optimal performance, they used the genuine, stock-standard articles, bought from the showroom floor, that being a more realistic path to discovering if thing did "what it said on the tin". What Car Life revealed was the Road Runner (when
equipped with the standard 383 cubic inch (6.3 litre) V8)) was quicker than a
typical 383 powered car using the same body (as would be expected given the lower
weight and modifications to the 383 used in the model) but was unable
to match the sub-15 second ¼-mile (402 metre) runs reported by many. The basic Road Runner was actually representative
of the performance of most of the era’s “muscle car ecosystem” while the storied cars
that “out of the box” were able consistently
to log ¼-mile ETs (elapsed time) in the 13 or 14 second bracket were relatively rare and a tiny sliver of what came to be classified as "muscle cars", some of which just "looked the part" although that did prove a lucrative market. Of course, to solve any perception of
inadequacy, a buyer could tick the box for the optional 426 (7.0)
Street Hemi V8 and while that was expensive, as well a fixing any performance deficit, putting one in a Road Runner was the
cheapest path to Hemi ownership, a compelling case at a time when a thousand dollars was a lot of money.
Channeling her inner Scotsperson: Lindsay Lohan in Royal Stewart tartan, Freaky Friday (2003), costume test photo (Walt Disney Pictures).
Despite the perception of many (encouraged bydepictions in popular culture), tartan in the sense of specific color & pattern combinations attached to specific clans is something of recent origin. Tartan (breacan (pɾʲɛxkən) in Scots Gaelic) is a patterned cloth consisting of criss-crossed, horizontal and vertical bands in multiple colours. The word plaid is now often used interchangeably with tartan (particularly in North America and when not associated with anything Scottish (especially kilts)), but technically (and always in Scotland), a plaid is a large piece of tartan cloth, worn as a type of kilt or large shawl although it’s used also to describe a blanket. During the disputes between England and Scotland, the wearing of tartan became a political expression and the Dress Act (1746) was part of the campaign to suppress the warrior clans north of the border; it banned tartan and other aspects of Gaelic culture. The law was repealed in 1782 and tartan was soon adopted as both the symbolic national dress of Scotland and in imagery more generally.
The Royal Stewart was the personal tartan of Elizabeth II (1926-2022; Queen of the UK and other places, 1952-2022) and although historically associated with the royal house of Stewart (or Stuart), it has become one of the most widely used in commercial fashion and in that sense appears in parallel with the clan affiliation. Commonly worn to formal events such as weddings, ceilidhs (social gatherings, the nature of which casts a wide net) or Burns Night (celebrating the life of Robert "Rabbie" Burns (1759–1796 and still in popular imagination Scotland's "national poet")), the modern trend is to pair a kilt with a Prince Charlie or Argyll jacket, traditionalists adding a Sporran (pouch), Hose (kilt socks) & flashes, Ghillie brogues (traditional shoes) and even a Sgian dubh (a small dagger tucked in the sock) although carrying the last item may be unlawful in some jurisdictions. Lindsay Lohan in her screen test wore the dress in something of the way in the 1970s it became part of the punk sub-culture but for more conventional types there are also scarves, ties, sashes and such. Remarkably, in the age of identity politics and sensitivity to cultural appropriation, the etiquette guides note there is no objection to non-Scots folk wearing their tartan of choice except when an event is clan-specific in which case only those in the lineage should don the fabric. That said, even then, the consequence of a tartan faux pas will likely be less severe than wearing a Rangers shirt in a Glasgow pub filled with Celtic’s hoops. Still, deployed with sufficient cultural insensitivity, improper use of tartan could be a microaggression.
Microaggression in Progress: A Mean Girls (2004) "mall scene".
Mean Girls was replete with instances of
microaggressiveness. We’re still
(mostly) allowed (quietly) to be amused by some of these, but, a quarter-century
on, there’s now a more hostile critique of subtle verbal or behavioural slights
that communicate hostile, derogatory, or negative messages to marginalized groups,
even if genuinely often unintentional; what seems subtle to some may to
others be blatant insensitivity. In satire,
there's still some tolerance for such depictions although audiences are now
expected to be as appalled as they are amused and, of course, as a satire of
the gut-wrenching ecosystem that is high school social dynamics, subtle forms
of relational aggression and passive-aggressive exclusion were not hard to find
and can be categorized:
(1) Racial
and Geographic Microaggressions: The line: “If you're from Africa, why are you white?” was
an invalidation of an individual’s cultural identity on the basis of not according
with another’s geographic & racial assumptions & expectations. The school map of “the cafeteria cliques” includes “Cool Asians”,
the labelling reducing individuals to their ethnicity and when paired with what
is nominally a most positive teen modifier (cool), that operates as a racial
micro-insult implying (1) most individuals of that ethnicity are “not cool” and
(2) non-white students are in a sense monolithic and acknowledged as “acceptable
sub-groups” only if they in some way adhere to “white people constructs” of “white
normative standards”. “Black hotties”
operates at the same level, although “hot” (a type of “coolness”!) usually is
positive, the implication here is that “hotness” inherently is a quality of
certain white girls and a black girl can be deemed “hot” only compared to other
black girls; she cannot, in the absolute sense, merely be a “hottie”, that descriptor
operating only on white girls. The
surprised response “Oh you speak English?” when someone is
introduced to a black student thought to be from Africa reveals the cultural
assumption such an individual would likely lack proficiency in the language; it’s
a classic micro-invalidation.
Microaggression weaponized ironically.
(2) Gender
and Academic Microaggressions: When Cady expresses interest in joining the
school math team, she’s told it’s “social suicide”, a pushback reinforcing gendered
and social stereotypes that young women cannot be simultaneously be popular, attractive
and intellectually gifted, thus the trope of intentionally failing math to gain a
boy's attention. The “I’m too pretty to do math” T-shirt plays with
this and works well if worn by a pretty math nerd although, it'd be really subversive on a "not-pretty" girl.
(3) Backhanded
compliments disguised as “niceness”: Such things can be the least objectionable
of all microaggressions especially if there’s some equivalency in the
power-relationship and the quip is witty, subtle and (ideally retrospectively)
understood. It can also be done “by proxy”
such as when saying to one student “I love your skirt, where did you get it?”, only
to wait until she’s out of earshot before turning to another and saying “That is the
ugliest effing skirt I've ever seen.” What this does is make an individual realize
they may not be able to find sincere or truthful anything they’re told.
Aggression rather
then microaggression: “Fetch” anyway likely never would have “happened”. Although a convenient clipping of “fetching”
(often in the form “quite fetching” or “most fetching” and meaning “charming;
captivating; compelling” etc), by the early twenty-first century “fetching” in
those senses had long since descended into the category of “dated”; it was an “old
people” word, use thus “social suicide”.
(4) Image
and fat-shaming: Because the social identity of the “Plastics” was so tied to
rigid “beauty standards” (some group-imposed, some the prevailing norms), by use
of the “Kalteen Bars manipulation” it was possible to induce weight-gain in Regina, an act of sabotage opening the
possibility of subjecting her to micro-insults and non-verbal cues (staring at
her body or pointing out strict dress-code rules that really can’t be adhered to by someone gaining weight) to signal there’s been a violation of group
standards, requiring exclusion. In that,
the techniques are different from something like: “Gretchen, stop trying to make 'fetch' happen.”; that is pure aggression: A group’s hegemon maintaining control by
suppressing another member’s attempt to assert their personal identity through something
as seemingly innocuous as the introduction of a new slang term. It was a type of linguistic imperialism, similar
to the attitude of Spanish nationalist troops who occupied Catalonia and
the Basque country after their victory in the Spanish Civil War (1936-1939). Harshly they would tell those they heard
talking in regional dialects: “Speak the language of the Empire, don’t bark like dogs!”
