Yogurt

Yogurt (pronounced yo-gurt, yog-urt or yog-utt)

(1) A milk-based product stiffened by a bacterium-aided curdling process, and sometimes mixed with fruit or other flavoring.

(2) Any similar product based on other substances (used very loosely except in jurisdictions with prescriptive legislation).

1620s: From the Ottoman Turkish یوغورت‎ (yoğurt) (yogurt).  Deconstructions of the original Turkish suggest the root yog meant something like “to condense” and was related to yoğun (thickened; intense), yogush (liquify (of water vapor)), yogur (knead) & yoğurmak (to knead; to be curdled or coagulated; to thicken) and there are similar words in other languages including the Welsh iogwrt (yogurt).  Yogurt is a noun; the noun plural is yogurts.

In the English speaking word there’s the usual Atlantic divide, yog-urt the usual pronunciation in the UK whereas in the US it tends to be yo-gurt.  This is mirrored by the various spellings and they in turn influence the regional differences in pronunciation.  In the UK, the usual spelling is yoghurt (although some imported product is different) while in the US it’s nearly always is yogurt.  In the far-flung outposts of the linguistic empire (Australia, New Zealand and South Africa), both spellings are found.  Canada (influenced by the UK because of the imperial legacy, the US because of proximity and France because of the special position of the province of Quebec) uses both the common spellings and has its own, unique blend (yogourt), a variant of the French yaourt.

Lindsay Lohan eating yogurt, Los Angeles, 2009.

The origin of the UK’s spelling (yoghurt) is said by etymologists to date from a mispronunciation of the Turkish from which the dairy treat came.  The sound ğ was in the early seventeenth century rendered as gh in transliterations of Turkish (the “g” a "soft" sound, in many dialects and closer to an English "w").  Across the channel, the French universally say yaourt, thus exactly following the spelling so while the English got the “g” wrong in transliteration, the French don’t pronounce the “g” at all and that appears to be the closest to the original.  The French pronunciation pays tribute to the Turkish letter “ğ” (yumuşak ge (a “g” with a squiggle)) which in Turkish is silent, the squiggle denoting only that the length of the preceding vowel should be lengthened.  The linguistic theory is that France being geographically closer to Asia Minor (the land mass which encompasses most of the modern Republic of Türkiye), yogurt must have been introduced by Turkish traders who demonstrated the correct pronunciation whereas the more remote English and Scandinavians received their yogurt by ship and had only the spelling with which to work.  They did their usual phonetic thing and the variations are with us to this day.

Autumn

Autumn (pronounced aw-tuhm)

(1) The season between summer and winter; also known as the fall and once known as the harvest.  In the Northern Hemisphere it’s between the September equinox and the December solstice; in the Southern Hemisphere it’s between the March equinox and the June solstice.

(2) A time of full maturity, especially the late stages of full maturity or, sometimes, the early stages of decline.

1325–1375: From the Latin autumnus, replacing the Middle English autumpne (the modern form of which dates from the sixteenth century) from the Middle French autompne, from the thirteenth century Old French automne.  The Latin autumnus (also auctumnus, perhaps influenced by auctus "increase") is of unknown origin, some suspecting Etruscan root but a more supported view is a meaning "drying-up season" with a root in auq-, comparing the archaic English sere-month "August."  Interestingly, while “summer”, “winter” and “spring” are inherited Indo-European words in Latin, a foreign origin of autumnus is conceivable as there is no evidence for any similar etymology for “autumn"; indeed, autumn's names across the Indo-European languages leave no evidence there ever was a common word for it.  Many "autumn" words mean "end”, “end of summer" or "harvest" and variations include the Greek phthinoporon (waning of summer), the Lithuanian ruduo (autumn) rudas (reddish) in reference to leaves and the Old Irish fogamar (literally "under-winter”).  Harvest was the English name for the season until autumn began to displace it during the sixteenth century and “backend”, a once common name for the season in Northern England, has been mostly replaced by autumn.  In the Romance languages, the Italian autunno, the Spanish otoño and the Portuguese outono are all from the Latin word.  The only surviving derived form is the adjective autumnal; the meaning "maturing or blooming in autumn” dates from the 1570s, by the 1630s it had come to be used in the sense of "belonging or pertaining to autumn" and by the 1650s, figuratively as "past the prime".  Autumn is a noun and adjective and autumnal is an adjective; the noun plural is autumns.

Lindsay Lohan at Petro Zilla show, Mercedes-Benz Fall 2004 Fashion Week, Bryant Park, Manhattan, March 2004.

Autumn dates from medieval times, examples existing as early as the twelfth century but it wasn’t until the sixteenth it was in common use, having supplanted the earlier “harvest”.  Because it’s so much more evocative, the alternative word “fall” really is better than autumn.  The exact derivation of fall is unclear, with the Old English fiæll or feallan and the Old Norse fall all possible candidates.  The term came to denote the season in sixteenth century England, a contraction of Middle English expressions like "fall of the leaf" and "fall of the year" and it was seventeenth century English emigration to the American colonies which took “fall” across the Atlantic.  While the term fall gradually became nearly obsolete in Britain (though there are signs of a twenty-first century revival), it became close to universal in North America.  Season names are not capitalized in modern English unless at the beginning of a sentence or when the season is personified (as in Old Man Winter, Winter War, Summer Glau et al).  This is in contrast to the days of the week & months of the year, which are always capitalized.

The fallen leaves: why "the fall" is so much more evocative that "autumn".  However, the adjective autumnal remains indispensable because clumsy constructs like "fallesque" or "fallish" are ghastly.

Patterns of use of fall & autumn in US & British English.  The twenty-first century trends are attributed to the influence of the internet.

Ode to Autumn (1819) by John Keats (1795-1821).

Season of mists and mellow fruitfulness,
   Close bosom-friend of the maturing sun;
Conspiring with him how to load and bless
   With fruit the vines that round the thatch-eves run;
To bend with apples the moss'd cottage-trees,
   And fill all fruit with ripeness to the core;
      To swell the gourd, and plump the hazel shells
   With a sweet kernel; to set budding more,
And still more, later flowers for the bees,
Until they think warm days will never cease,
      For summer has o'er-brimm'd their clammy cells.
 
Who hath not seen thee oft amid thy store?
   Sometimes whoever seeks abroad may find
Thee sitting careless on a granary floor,
   Thy hair soft-lifted by the winnowing wind;
Or on a half-reap'd furrow sound asleep,
   Drows'd with the fume of poppies, while thy hook
      Spares the next swath and all its twined flowers:
And sometimes like a gleaner thou dost keep
   Steady thy laden head across a brook;
   Or by a cyder-press, with patient look,
      Thou watchest the last oozings hours by hours.
 
Where are the songs of spring? Ay, Where are they?
   Think not of them, thou hast thy music too,—
While barred clouds bloom the soft-dying day,
   And touch the stubble-plains with rosy hue;
Then in a wailful choir the small gnats mourn
   Among the river sallows, borne aloft
      Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies;
And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn;
   Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft
   The red-breast whistles from a garden-croft;
      And gathering swallows twitter in the skies.

The English romantic poet John Keats wrote his best-remembered ode To Autumn after a stroll near Winchester one autumnal evening.  Within a year of publication, Keats died in Rome.

Gray

Gray (pronounced grey)

(1) Of a spread of colors between white and black; having a neutral hue; any achromatic color; any color with zero chroma, intermediate between white and black.

(2) Something in or of this color, applied particularly to horses (and sometimes of a horse that appears white but is not an albino).

(3) Conveying a sense of the dark, dismal, or gloomy.

(4) Conveying a sense of the dull, dreary, or monotonous.

(5) In informal use, of older people; pertaining to old age (related to having gray hair; being gray-headed), sometimes expressed as graybeard.

(6) In demography (originally slang but now often used formally), of the aging of a whole population or those in a certain sector or geographic region (such as “the graying of the Freemasons”).

(7) In economics, as “gray dollar” (the purchasing power of older consumers), “gray collar” (the workforce participation of older workers) & “gray market” (a (usually) lawful but unofficial state where goods are produced or imported outside of the usual channels (ie between the (white) market and the “black market”).

(8) As “gray matter” an informal reference to (1) the physical brain, (2) levels of intelligence or (3) thought processes.

(9) Something indeterminate and intermediate in character, often as “gray area” (ie neither black or white; neither one thing or another; a state of uncertainty).

(10) In certain industrial production, an unbleached and un-dyed condition.

(11) In metallurgy and industrial production, the color of freshly broken cast iron.

(12) Documented since 1863 (the oral use presumably earlier), a member of the Confederate (southern) army in the American Civil War or the army itself (based on the standard uniform color, compared with the Union (northern) forces which wore blue, the idea used also in the description of the World War II (1939-1945) German army (Heer) as the Feldgrau (field gray), a later variation in the GDR (the German Democratic Republic, the Old East Germany) being Steingrau (stone-grey) for the National People's Army,

(13) In physics, the standard unit of absorbed dose of radiation (such as x-rays) in the International System of Units (SI), equal to the amount of ionizing radiation absorbed when the energy imparted to matter is 1 J/kg (one joule per kilogram) and a gray is equivalent to 100 rads.  The unit was first used in 1975 and was created in honor of English radiobiologist Louis Harold Gray (1905–1965).  The standard abbreviation is Gy.

(14) In film-stock photography, to give a soft effect to (a photograph) by covering the negative while printing with a ground-glass plate (now emulated in software in digital photography).

(15) In the (mostly US) discipline of ufology (an umbrella term which encompasses all which evolved from the flying saucer sightings of the 1950s), an extraterrestrial humanoid with grayish skin, bulbous black eyes and an enlarged head with an unchanging, serious expression (who sometimes carries an anal probe).

(16) In gambling, a penny with a tail on both sides, used for cheating in the game of two-up (US).

(17) In wastewater management, as “gray water”, household waste water not suitable for human consumption but able to be re-used for some purposes without purification (such as garden irrigation), and thus contrasted with black water (wastewater from toilets, garbage disposal, and industrial processes which demands treatment prior to reintroduction to the environment).

(18) In computing, as "grayed-out", the practice in graphical user interfaces (GUI) to display a non-available menu option in a shade of gray, the choice reverting to a different color when available for selection. 

(19) To make or become gray.

Pre 900: From the Middle English gray, grei & grai (of a color between white and black; having little or no color or luminosity), from the Old English grǣg & grēg, and the Mercian grei, from the Proto-West Germanic grāu, from the Proto-Germanic grewa & grēwaz, from the primitive Indo-European ǵreh- (to green, to grow) and cognate with the German grau, the Old Norse grār & grár, the Dutch grauw, the Latin rāvus (grey), the Old Church Slavonic зьрѭ (zĭrjǫ) (to see, to glance), the (archaic) Russian зреть (zret) (to watch, to look at) and the Lithuanian žeriù (to shine).  There appear to be no certain connections outside Germanic and the French gris, the Spanish gris, the Italian grigio and the Medieval Latin griseus are all loan-words from Germanic. The adjective form was the first, the noun emerging as a derivative circa 1200 while the verb with the sense of “become gray, wither away” came into use in the 1610s although etymologists note there is a single instance of gray as a verb in a late fourteenth century text, an example of the way in which innovations in English don’t always immediately flourish.  As a color, there’s no direct synonym (although silvery, silver & ash inhabit a kind of gray area) but related words in the figurative sense include drab, dusty, clouded, dappled, heather, iron, lead, neutral, oyster, pearly, powder, shaded, silvered, slate, stone, ashen & dingy.  Gray is a noun, verb & adjective, greyness is a noun, greyed is a verb, grayer, grayish & grayest are adjectives, grayly is an adverb; the noun plural is grays.

Lindsey Lohan in Lavish Alice gray suit.

Gray and grey are different spellings of the same word and the meanings are the same for both (except where based on a proper noun such as a surname so a product like Earl Grey Tea is always spelled thus) although there are conventions of use and historic practices should usually be followed.  Except with brand-names or in the SI unit measuring radiation, the spellings can interchangeably be used without causing confusion although use should always be consistent.  In commercial use, there was in the early twentieth century an attempt to create a functional distinction between gray and grey, the former a mixture of “blue & white”, the latter of “black & white” and there are manufacturers who still use the convention but it hasn’t been widely adopted.  The spelling gray is more common in American English, while grey is sometimes preferred in British English despite Samuel Johnson (1709-1784) and just about every English lexicographer since insisting it should for all purposes be gray.

Lindsay Lohan color image rendered in 8-bit gray scale.

Gray (and grey for those who prefer the spelling) is often used figuratively, either as an allusion to the color or to illustrate some degree of uncertainty (ie that zone between the absolutes of black & white).  In economics, the “gray dollar” expresses the purchasing power of older consumers, the “gray collar” the workforce participation of older workers & “gray market” the (usually) lawful but unofficial state where goods are produced or imported outside of the usual channels (ie between the (white) market and the “black market”).  Then classic gray market is that for cars not officially available in a certain market but imported by third-parties (sometimes with the need to modify them to meet local regulations) and re-sold.  The practice was especially prevalent in the US during its more restrictive times in the 1980s and the gray market for desirable (ie usually more powerful) models from Ferrari, Mercedes-Benz and others sold elsewhere in the world saw an industry emerge to meet the need, the processes involved in making gray market vehicles compliant with US regulation known as “federalization”.

Fifty Shades of Grey (2011) was the first erotic novel in a trilogy by EL James (b 1963).  Being English, she spelled the word grey and either for publication in the US or the film adaptation it wasn't changed to gray, the assumption presumably that all would cope.

As an adjective it’s widely used.  In wastewater management, “gray water” is household waste water not suitable for human consumption but able to be re-used for some purposes without purification (such as garden irrigation), and thus contrasted with black water (wastewater from toilets, garbage disposal, and industrial processes which demands treatment prior to reintroduction to the environment).  “White water” is not used in this context because of specific meanings elsewhere, either as “frothy water as in river rapids” or “white water” (and “whitewater”) navy, part of an admiralty hierarchy describing the capabilities of naval forces: (1) a brown water force restricted to rivers and estuaries, (2) a white water force able to operate close to coastlines and (2) a blue water force which can ply the open seas.  In wastewater management, instead of white water, the preferred term is “potable”.

Grayness at the margins: In fashion the distinction between gray, silver & ash varies between manufacturers.

The use with animals is usually literal (gray fox, gray elephant, gray squirrel, gray hare, gray wolf, gray whale etc) but a special use derived from zoology is the “gray mare”, an expression adapted in the 1540s (from “the gray mare is the better horse”) to refer to households in which the husband was dominated by the wife.  The use in this context has long been extinct and was unrelated to the nineteenth century US folk song “The Old Gray Mare”.  In equine classification, a gray horse is a horse with a coat color which appears gray, but is actually a combination of white hairs mixed with hairs of other colors.  Gray horses can be born with a dark coat color that gradually lightens as they age or they can be born with a light-colored coat that darkens over time.  The range of “gray” colorations is not uncommon in horses and such is the variations some are sometimes described as “blue”.

Iowa-class battleship USS Missouri (BB-63, 1944-1992) in battleship gray.

In demography, the use of “gray” as an synecdoche of “aging” (an allusion to gray hair) began as slang but has become so accepted by economists and others it probably should now be thought formal.  It can be used to describe aging of a whole population (the “graying of China”) or those in a certain sector or geographic region (“the graying of the priesthood”).  Still a slang form is “graybeard”, a reference to an older man, one who presumably needs to be bearded if an individual but when applied collectively (“the graybeards”) it’s based on the age of the group rather than any particular hirsuteness.  The phrase “giving me gray hair” is used as a complaint that someone is so troublesome the stress they induce is causing one prematurely to age.  In some cases, stress can literally cause premature aging.  Battleship gray is a (narrow) range of dull, matt shades of gray often used for warships, it being the compromise which worked best as a form of camouflage against the variations in sea color.  Modern paints used of warships still use battleship gray but with special (stealth) treatments to reduce susceptibility to detection by radar or other electronic systems.

Gray hair as a thing: Some now dye their hair gray but as a look it succeeds only in the young and it's one of those rare things which succeeds when it's obvious it's fake.  In older women, for whom grayness is a thing of the passing of time, the choice is to conceal or embrace, the latter group growing but still a feminist, anti-ageist niche.

In politics an éminence grise (gray eminence) is an influential “backroom operator” who functions as a “power behind the throne”.  The classic éminence grise is someone known to few who influences (in some cases rumored to dictate) the decisions made by someone in a powerful position.  An éminence grise differs from a “king maker” in that the latter is usually much better known and tends to ensure who is appointed to positions of authority rather than being involved in the discharge of their duties.  The first so described as an eminence grise was François Leclerc du Tremblay (1577–1638), an aide to Cardinal Richelieu (1585-1642; chief minister (chancellor or prime-minister) to the King of France 1624-1642).  The cardinal wore the customary and conspicuous scarlet while the monk Leclerc was attired in a habit described at the time as gray although evidence suggests it would now be thought beige.  His influence on matters of church & state was understood to be great though he was hardly ever seen.  In Nazi Germany, the idea of the eminence grise was picked up in the 1940s by party members who resentfully noted the undue influence of Martin Bormann (1900–1945) on Adolf Hitler (1889-1945; German head of government 1933-1945 & head of state 1934-1945), despite him being nominally only the Führer’s secretary.  He was known as the der braune Schatten (literally “the brown Shadow” but translated in English as “brown eminence”), an allusion to the golden-brown party uniform he habitually wore.  The party uniform also provided cynical citizens with the basis of their description of high-ranking party functionaries as Goldfasan (golden pheasants), a sly reference to them always looking well-fed, regardless of the state of rationing imposed during times of food shortages.

Ether

Ether (pronounced ee-ther)

(1) In chemistry, Pharmacology and (pre-modern) surgery, A colorless, highly volatile, flammable liquid (C₄H₁₀O), having an aromatic odor and sweet, burning taste, derived from ethyl alcohol by the action of sulfuric acid.  It was used as a powerful solvent and as an inhalant anesthetic (also called diethyl ether, diethyl oxide, ethyl ether, ethyl oxide, sulfuric ether.

(2) In pre-modern chemistry, one of a class of compounds in which two organic groups are attached directly to an oxygen atom (the general formula ROR), as in diethyl ether (C₂H₅OC₂H₅).

(3) In Greek mythology, the upper regions of the atmosphere; clear sky or heaven (and from this long a rarely used word for “air”).

(4) In physics, a hypothetical substance supposed to occupy all space, postulated to account for the propagation of electromagnetic radiation through space, an idea picked up in the early days of radio broadcasting, the signal said to be “in the ether”.

(5) In chemistry, a starting fluid.

(6) Figuratively, a particular quality created by or surrounding an object, person, or place; an atmosphere; an aura (probably most familiar in the form ethereal). 

1350-1400: From the Middle English ether (the caelum aetherum of ancient cosmology in which the planets orbit; a shining, fluid substance described as a form of air or fire; air), from the Middle French & Anglo-Norman ether, from the Old French aether (highest and purest part of the atmosphere; the medium supposedly filling the upper regions of space), from the Ancient Greek αἰθήρ (aithḗr) (purer upper air of the atmosphere; heaven, sky; theoretical medium supposed to fill unoccupied space and transmit heat and light), (akin to aíthein (to glow, burn)) or directly from its etymon New Latin aethēr (highest and purest part of the atmosphere; air; heavens, sky; light of day; ethereal matter surrounding a deity).  The ultimate source of the Greek was αἴθω (aíthō) (to burn, ignite; to blaze, shine), from the primitive Indo-European heyd- (to burn; fire).  It was related to the Old English ād (funeral pyre) and the Latin aestus (heat).  As late as the nineteenth century, it was not uncommon in English for the Latin-derived spelling aether to be used, probably because so much of what was in the books of apothecaries remained for so long unchanged.  The German-born chemist August Sigmund Frobenius (circa 1690-1741) was the first to use the name for the volatile chemical, his bestowal based on its properties.  The name entered English science in 1757 although it wasn’t until 1842 the anaesthetic properties were fully documented.  The English word was cognate with the obsolete Italian etere (ether & ethera both obsolete), the Middle Dutch ether, the modern Dutch ether (aether obsolete), the German Äther, the Portuguese éter and the Spanish éter.

In ancient cosmology, ether was the element filling all space beyond the sphere of the moon, constituting the substance of the stars and planets; in the imagination of Antiquity it was held by one school of thought to be a purer form of fire or air, by another as a fifth element.  From the seventeenth to nineteenth centuries, ether was part of scientific orthodoxy and the technical word for an assumed framework within which the forces of the universe interacted, perhaps without material properties.  As the scientific method evolved increasingly to demand proof of theories, doubts were expressed about the validity of the traditional view and in 1887 an experiment by American physicists Albert Michelson (1852-1931) and Edward Morley (1838-1923) cast such doubts on the notion that among others, Albert Einstein (1879-1955) was moved to begin calculations and the view of the nature of ether from Antiquity was completely dismissed after conclusive proof of the theory of relativity in 1919.  Despite that, having first been so used in 1899, the word endured well into the twentieth century to describe the path of the then seemingly mysterious radio broadcasts.

Lindsay Lohan during her dabble with Ethereum fueled NFT drops.  

Although the volatility and churn rate make it a hard sector to track, there are apparently over 20,000 currently active (in the sense of being listed somewhere and thus able to be traded) cryptocurrencies.  There are obvious attractions to creating one's own virtual currency because in a sense one is creating one's own money (usually in the millions) and if one can convince others (and guides to market manipulation have been published) to exchange their convertible currency for one's tokens, it can be a good business model.  One thankless task associated with cryptocurrencies however is coming up with a suitable name, something not of great importance once the creation gains critical mass but possibly quite influential when first listed.  It must be something like thinking of names for racehorses but harder still because not only must it be unique but it should also not be too close to other financial products (not just other virtual currencies).  Ethereum (ETH) was coined by Russian-Canadian programmer Vitalik Buterin (b 1994) who has in interviews revealed he chose the name after browsing Wikipedia for a list of fictional elements on based on ether.  One can certainly see the link and it makes more sense than the earlier Ethernet, originally a trademark of the Xerox Corporation, the construct being ether +‎ net(work).  Ethernet was a collection of cabling and network connectivity protocols standards for bus topology computer networks and to use the word "ether" was a bit of a leap, everything originally connected by cable whereas at least part of the Ethereum traffic travels through the ether (as it was understood in Antiquity).  With Ethernet cabling, there was thick and thin Ethernet and the physical cabling literally was thick and thin, the choice dictated by things like the distance to be covered, the number of nodes to be connected and the available budget.  In the world of cryptocurrency, think & thin means "going through thick & thin", hodling (holding) one's coins no matter what the fluctuations.

Byzantine

Byzantine (pronounced biz-uhn-teen, biz-uhn-tahyn, bahy-zuhn-tyne or bih-zan-tin)

(1) Relating to Byzantium, the Byzantine Empire, or the Eastern Orthodox Church.

(2) Of or about a situation deemed excessively complicated and typically involving a great deal of seemingly pointless administrative detail (usually without initial capital).

(3) A citizen of Byzantium or the Byzantine Empire.

(4) Of or belonging to the style of architecture developed from the fifth century AD in the Byzantine Empire, characterized especially by a central dome resting on a cube formed by four round arches and their pendentives and by the extensive use of surface decoration, especially veined marble panels, low relief carving, and colored glass mosaics.

(5) Of the painting and decorative style developed in the Byzantine Empire, characterized by formality of design, frontal stylized presentation of figures, rich use of color, especially gold, and generally religious subject matter.

(6) Characterized by elaborate scheming and intrigue, especially for the gaining of political power or favour (usually without initial capital).

(7) In numismatics, a coin issued by the Byzantine Empire.

(8) A dark, metallic shade of violet.

1651 (in English use): From the Late Latin Bȳzantīnus (of Byzantium), the name derived ultimately from the ancient Greek city Byzantion on the Bosporus and the Sea of Marmara, said to have been named in 657 BC for it founder, Byzas of Megara.  Constantine I (circa 272–337; Roman emperor 306-337 (and the first to convert to Christianity) rebuilt the city and renamed it Constantinople.  The city fell to the Ottoman Turks in 1453 although the modern-day name Istanbul wasn’t (except in the Vatican and the Orthodox Church) universally adopted until the years after World War II (1939-1945).  Although in Greek legend the ancient city name Byzantion came from King Byzas, leader of the Megarian colonists, who is said to be its founder, the etymology remains uncertain although most historians of the period seem to agree it must be of Thraco-Illyrian origin and there’s no doubt Byzantium is a Latinization of the original.  Centuries later, in Western literature, the name Byzantium became the standard term with which to refer to the Eastern Roman Empire (the "Byzantine Empire” centred on the walled capital Constantinople.  For all the generations which lived while the empire stood, the term would have been mysterious and it gained currency only after 1555 when introduced by the German historian Hieronymus Wolf (1516-1580), a century after Constantinople had fallen and the empire had ceased to exist.  Until Wolf introduced the phrase, the word Byzantium was restricted to just the city, rather than the empire which, in the way of such things, had waxed and waned.  Byzantine is a noun & adjective; the noun plural is Byzantines.

Byzantium

A hand-painted rendition of Byzantine Constantinople after the style of medieval mapmakers.

Standing for centuries on blood-soaked soil on the Bosporus where Europe ends and Asia begins, Greek forces laid siege during the Peloponnesian war and Sparta took the city in 411 BC before it was reclaimed by the Athenian military in 408 BC.  Almost razed, by Roman forces in 196 AD, Byzantium was rebuilt by Septimius Severus (145-211; Roman emperor 193-211) and quickly regained its previous prosperity.  The location of Byzantium attracted Constantine I (circa 272–337; Roman emperor 306-337 (and the first to convert to Christianity)) who in 330 AD re-created it as an imperial residence inspired by Rome itself and after his death, it was called Constantinople (Κωνσταντινούπολις (Konstantinoupolis (literally "city of Constantine"))).  For a thousand years, it was the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire and a commercial, cultural & diplomatic centre and from its strategic position, Constantinople’s rulers controlled the major trade routes between Asia and Europe, as well as the passage from the Mediterranean to the Black Sea.  On 29 May 1453, in the first example of a major city falling to a siege by artillery, Constantinople fell to the Turks, becoming the capital of the Ottoman Empire.  The great walls which for centuries had defied invaders from land and sea, crumbled to modern cannon fire.  Even then, the Turks called the city Istanbul (from the Greek eis-tin-polin (to-the-city) although it was not officially renamed until 1930, almost a decade after the Empire was dissolved and it remains Turkey’s largest and most populous city, although Ankara is now the national capital.

Lindsay Lohan meeting Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (b 1954; prime-minister or president of the Republic of Türkiye since 2003), Istanbul (formerly Constantinople), January 2017.

The other senses of byzantine (as often used without the initial capital): (1) “characterized by a devious and usually surreptitious manner of operation, often for some nefarious purpose” and (2) “something intricate, complicated; inflexible, rigid, unyielding” are both of dubious historical validity.  According to the Oxford English Dictionary (OED), “byzantine” was first used in English in 1937 (of the impenetrable despotism of the Soviet Union which appeared to those in the Foreign Office schooled in the classics to be much the same as what they’d learned of the antics practiced in Constantinople) in the sense of “reminiscent of the manner, style, or spirit of Byzantine politics; intricate, complicated; inflexible, rigid, unyielding” but in French political scientists had earlier applied in the same figurative context, something which would surprise few familiar with the politicians of inter-war France, a generally rotten crew about whom it was remarked “they can’t keep a government for nine months, nor a secret for five minutes”.  Still, it was probably the English who lent the word its loaded meaning.  Edward Gibbon’s (1737–1794) magisterial The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire (six volumes: 1776-1788) was influential for generations in forming the construct of the period in the European imagination and he caricatured the history of the empire as endless chicanery, shadyness, back-channel deals, low skulduggery, back-stabbing, and naked grabs for power.  Until late in the twentieth century, phrases like “bewildering Oriental intrigue” flowed easily from the pens of English historians and hints of the attitude, cloaked in wokish words, appear even since they’ve switched to keyboards.  Much modern scholarship though has been more forgiving and there’s now an understanding that while like everywhere, low politics and dirty deeds were sometimes done, a remarkable civilization grew on the Bosporus.

Byzantium architectural styles.

The association with needless complexity and pointless administrative duplication was probably born of the same prejudices to which was added the view the empire was infused with strange religious rituals and stubbornness in the way it clung to superstition.  Historians have of late have refined this view, suggesting words like “intricate” or even “labyrinthine” might better capture the spirit of the place which was, by any standards and certainly those of medieval Europe, a complex and highly developed society.  The loaded meaning though seems here to stay, perhaps reinforced in the public imagination by the phonetic similarity between “byzantine” & “bizarre”.  Bizarre means “strangely unconventional; highly unusual and different from common experience, often in an extravagant, fantastic or conspicuous ways” and was from the French bizarre (odd, peculiar (and formerly “brave; headlong, angry”), either from the Basque bizar (a beard (on the notion that bearded Spanish soldiers made a strange impression on the French) or from Italian bizzarro (odd, queer, eccentric, weird (and, of a horse “frisky” in the sense of the English “bolter”)) of unknown origin but thought probably related to bizza (tantrum), which may be of Germanic origin.  In summary then, the Byzantines would have had their moments but were no more nasty and duplicitous that politicians everywhere and when describing convoluted things as byzantine it might be more accurate to instead call them labyrinthine or just bizarre.

Battery

Battery (pronounced bat-rhee or bat-uh-ree)

(1) A combination of two or more cell electrically connected to work together to store electric energy (also called galvanic battery or voltaic battery); another name for accumulator

(2) Any large group or series of related things; a group or series of similar articles, machines, parts etc.

(3) In army jargon, two or more pieces of artillery used for combined action or a tactical unit of artillery, usually consisting of up to six guns together with the artillerymen and equipment required for their operation.

(4) A parapet or fortification equipped with artillery (mostly historic).

(5) In baseball, the pitcher and catcher considered as a unit (obsolete).

(6) In Admiralty use, a group of guns, missile launchers, searchlights, or torpedo tubes on a warship having the same caliber or used for the same purpose; the whole armament of a warship.

(7) In psychology, a series of tests yielding a single total score, used for measuring aptitude, intelligence, personality etc.

(8) The act of beating or battering; an instrument used in battering.

(9) In law, an unlawful attack upon another person by beating or wounding, or by touching in an offensive manner; In common law countries, the meaning varies in civil and criminal law.

(10) In orchestral music, the instruments comprising the percussion section of an orchestra (also known as the batterie).

(11) Any imposing group of persons or things acting or directed in unison.

(12) In agribusiness, a large group of cages for intensive rearing of poultry.

(13) In chess, two pieces of the same colour placed so that one can unmask an attack by the other by moving.

(14) An apparatus for preparing or serving meals (archaic).

1525-1535: From the Middle French batterie, from twelfth century Old French baterie (beating, thrashing, assault) from the Latin battuere and battuō (beat) & batre (to beat).  The ultimate source was the Gaulish.  The sense in law (the unlawful beating of another) was adapted by the military, the meaning in French shifting from bombardment (heavy blows upon city walls or fortresses) to "unit of artillery", a sense recorded in English army records in the 1550s.  It was first extended to the "electrical cell in 1748 by Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), his thoughts undocumented but presumably analogous with artillery: force being stored in a manner able to be discharged upon demand.  In Middle English, bateri meant only "forged metal ware". In US baseball jargon, in 1867, battery was a term for the pitcher (again drawing on the imagery of artillery) and later for both pitcher and catcher considered as a unit, again presumably drawing a military connection; the term is long obsolete.  As applied to cooking, the meaning emerged because batter needed to be beaten.  Battery is a noun and batteried an adjective; the noun plural is batteries.

In Law

Although the terms assault and battery have for centuries been used in criminal law, their origins are as two of the most ancient common law torts, classified now as one of the trespass to the person torts, all of which are known as intentional torts.  Both assault and battery are actionable per se (without proof of damage) although, if the wrongful act does result in injury, damages can be recovered for that injury as well.  In malicious prosecution proceedings however, it’s necessary to assert and prove damage.

An assault is any direct and intentional threat made by a person that places the plaintiff in reasonable apprehension of an imminent contact with the plaintiff’s person, either by the defendant or by some person or thing within the defendant’s control.  The effect on the victim’s mind created by the threat is the crux, not whether the defendant actually had the intention or means to follow it up.  The intent required for the tort of assault is the desire to arouse an apprehension of physical contact, not necessarily an intention to inflict actual harm.  Although words are often a feature in threats which constitute an assault, actions alone may suffice if they place the plaintiff in reasonable apprehension of receiving an imminent (though not of necessity an immediate) battery.

A battery is a voluntary and positive act, done with the intention of causing contact with another that directly causes that contact.  The requisite intention for battery is simply that the defendant must have intended the consequence of the contact with the plaintiff; the defendant need not know the contact is unlawful and they need not intend to cause harm or damage as a result of the contact.  Not every contact is a battery.  Those in crowded trains are implied to have consented to most contacts, as has a rugby player who may have consented in writing although, even then, limitations exist and beyond tort, the criminal law can intervene if the degree of the contact exceeds that to which could reasonably thought to have been consented, a distinction influenced on technical grounds by those engaged in professional sport being in a workplace.  Where such things are contested, as a general principle, it will be the responsibility of the defendant to raise a defense of consent and prove it.

The early development of rockets in military aviation

Battery of wing-strut mounted Le Prieur rockets on Nieuport 11 (1917).

Although it became well-known only late in World War II (1939-1945), the ground-attack rocket had a surprisingly long history in military aviation, the Royal Flying Corps (RFC; 1912-1918, predecessor of the Royal Air Force (RAF; 1918-)) using wing-strut mounted Le Prieur solid-fuel rockets previously used by the French army on the battlefield.  Severely limited as an infantry tactical weapon because of inaccuracy and an effective range of barely 100 m (330 feet) (although 150 m (330 feet) was quoted based on experimental firings in ideal, controlled conditions), when used in the air, the latter drawback could somewhat be mitigated if a pilot could maneuver into a position at a helpful height and angle above the target.  Altitude though brought its own problems, the rocket’s trajectory affected by winds and the inaccuracy meant it was something which could only ever be effective against large, slow moving targets like observation balloons.  Against these, the RFC enjoyed some success, but the rockets were never popular with pilots because, depending on the capacity of the airframe, batteries of between six and twelve were used and, although all were triggered simultaneously, actual ignition could vary between rockets by one or two seconds, during which, the airplane had to maintain travelling in the direction of the target.

Ground-based test-firing of Le Prieur rocket (1917).

A one-two second delay sounds not critical but, even at the relative closing speed (typically not more than 80 mph (130 km/h)), because firing had to be at close range, it was enough significantly to increase the risk of collision.  That the RFC’s pilots managed to bring down some fifty balloons without loss may suggest some caution was exercised.  Strangely, despite the big airships being tempting targets, there’s no record of rockets downing a Zeppelin although even when using more conventional munitions, the defenses enjoyed only what was at the time thought limited success.  Of the dozens of Zeppelins the Germans lost, only a handful were destroyed by aircraft, more were the victims of ground-fire or, overwhelmingly, accidents.  It was only after the war the British fully understood the difficulties of mounting fighter defenses against bomber attack; of the biggest bombers used in the war by the Germans, not one would be lost and the experience allowed “the bomber will always get through” doctrine to shape the policies of many European nations during the inter-war years.

Modern (cosmetic) replica of Le Prieur rocket battery.

The sometimes stuttering rate of fire was a product of the construction.  The rocket was made by filling a cardboard tube with 200 g (6 ½ oz) of black powder, topped with a conical, 75 mm (3 inch) steel-tipped, wooden head.  Cardboard being porous, the black powder was prone to moisture infiltration and this happened at different rates, hence the delay sometime encountered in firing.  Directional assistance was limited to a 1.5 m (5 foot) wooden stick taped to the cardboard; they were essentially a big firework of the kind still made today.  Their limitations made them impractical for air-to-air combat although there is a record of a German fighter succeeding in forcing a RFC aircraft to crash-land after inflicting damage in a rocket attack but the rarity of the event does suggest it might have been a lucky shot.  Despite that one-off-victory, no effort seems to have been made to improve the technology and as soon as tracer rounds and incendiary-tipped bullets became available, they were replaced, the RFC’s last rocket-equipped sortie flown early in 1918.

Lindsay Lohan portable battery charger.

Feuerlile AA Missile.

During the inter-war years, no air force seems much to have explored aircraft-mounted rockets although advances in the propulsion systems did see them developed as ground-based anti-aircraft batteries.  The early British devices were simple but a useful augmentation to the anti-aircraft guns which were only ever marginally effective in high-altitude attacks.  The German efforts, typically, were technically intriguing but never reached the point of being decisive weapons, all the projects falling victim to the usual bureaucratic inertia and squabbles between competing interests.  Although, both the Henschel Hs 117 Schmetterling (Butterfly) and the two Feuerlilie (Fire lily) rockets needed development beyond what was within the economic and industrial capacity of the Nazi state, the Wasserfall (waterfall) could by 1944 have been deployed had the resources been made available although military analysts doubt it would have been effective without the proximity fuses that Germany lacked.  Lacking the Wagnerian flavor he preferred, it's doubtful Hitler's approval was sought for the code-names.

Battery of RP-3 rockets.

Allied interest in the rocket was revived early in the war when its potential as a ground attack weapon was realised.  Early attempts to create the so-called “tank-buster” fighters by equipping the Hawker Hurricane (IV) with a pair of 40 mm canons had been partially successful but more firepower was needed to disable the heavier tanks and there were limits to the weight and calibre of canon a fighter could support.  The solution lay in the adoption of batteries of the RP-3 (Rocket Projectile 3 inch (75 mm)) which proved a versatile weapon.  Equipped with a 60-pound (27 kg) warhead, it was used against moving and static targets on both land and sea, proving effective even against submarines.

Single-rack mount (four rockets per wing) RP-3 battery on Hawker Typhoon Mark 1B (1943).

As the war dragged on, the ground-attack aircraft with rocket batteries became an increasingly important tactical weapon, able to deliver a destructive load with a speed and accuracy otherwise unattainable and at minimal cost in manpower and machinery.  The effectiveness of the rocket batteries also played a role in saving an aircraft on the verge of being abandoned,  turning it into one of the more important fighters of the later stages of the conflict.  The Hawker Typhoon (1941-1945) had been intended as the Hurricane’s replacement but the performance at altitude was disappointing and production seemed unlikely.  However, it was rushed into service because, whatever it’s failings, at low altitude it was the fastest thing the RAF possessed and, in 1941, changes in the nature of the Luftwaffe’s attack meant that was where the need lay.  It didn’t go well for the Typhoon, the exposure to combat revealing basic problems with the wing design and weaknesses in the fuselage which sometimes resulted in catastrophic structural failure.  The whole project was going to be scrapped.

Double-rack mount (six rockets per wing) RP-3 battery on Hawker Typhoon Mark 1B (1945).

Hawker however persisted and rectified the faults to the point where it was a useful part of the fleet, though it would never be the high-altitude interceptor originally intended.  By 1943 however, the nature of the Allied war effort was shifting to attack and the robust wing of the Typhoon was adapted to carry batteries of the RP-3 rockets and it proved a devastating combination.  One early drawback however was the misleading intelligence gained early in the Typhoon’s second career in ground-attack, subsequent reconnaissance revealing the pilots' reports of destruction being exaggerated sometime by a factor of hundreds.  It was perhaps understandable given the lack of visibility inherent in such operations and, after the war, it was realised the rocket attacks had a military effectiveness well beyond the actual damage caused.