Treadmill

Treadmill (pronounced tred-mil)

(1) A device for producing rotary motion by the weight of people or animals, treading on a succession of moving steps or a belt that forms a kind of continuous path, as around the periphery of a pair of horizontal cylinders (also called a treadwheel (archaic)).

(2) An exercise machine that allows the user to walk or run in place, usually on a continuous moving belt.

(3) Figuratively, a process or situation in which continued effort leads to or is required for remaining at a particular state or level without moving ahead; any monotonous, wearisome routine in which there is little or no satisfactory progress.

(4) By extension, anything repetitive and unending.

(5) In molecular biology, as treadmilling, the apparent locomotion of certain cellular filaments by adding protein subunits at one end, and removing them at the other, a phenomenon observed in many cellular cytoskeletal filaments.

1822: The construct was tread + mill.  Tread was from the Middle English tred, from treden (to tread), from the Old English tredan, from the Proto-West Germanic tredan, from the Proto-Germanic trudaną.  Mill was from the Middle English mylne & mille, from the Old English mylen, from the Proto-West Germanic mulīnu (mill), from the Late Latin molīna, molīnum & molīnus (mill), from the Latin verb molō (grind, mill), related to the Proto-Germanic muljaną (to crush, grind (related to the later English millstone).  Although speculative, some etymologists have suggested a relationship with the surname Milne, based on an associative link with the profession of some sort of milling.  The synonyms for the physical devices have variously included mill, stepper & everlasting staircase, and in the figurative sense, chore, drudgery, groove, labor, pace, rote, routine, rut, sweat, task, toil, travail & moil.  Treadmill is a noun, treadmilling is a noun & verb, treadmilled is a verb (the forms treadmillish & treadmillesque are both non-standard); the noun plural is plural treadmills.

Depiction of penal treadmill (the wheel).

Treadmills originated as a means of translating human energy into mechanical action to be applied to tasks such as moving water or air, grinding grain or making more efficient processes like the kneading of dough.  All such devices had since the mid sixteenth century tended to be known as treadwheels and the name treadmill wasn’t widely adopted until 1822 when a machine, invented by the son of a miller and used in English jails since 1818, was introduced into the US prison system, the intention in both places being to occupy the prisoners (on the basis of the theory that “the Devil makes work for idle hands”) and harness the energy produced for some useful purpose (although it’s unclear to what extent the devices were ever used a power source).  Designed ultimately to accommodate a dozen-odd men at a time, penal treadmills were rotating cylinders with steps built into the external surface, the prisoners essentially “walking uphill” for up to 4000 metres (14,000 feet) per day.  In prison slang the treadmills became known as “the wheel” and they were widely used in England until a decline in the late nineteenth century before use was discontinued in 1902; In the US, they were rare and extinct by mid-century, prison administrations preferring to apply the labor of inmates directly to some productive purpose.  The penal treadmill (the wheel) is best remembered as being one of the punishments to which Oscar Wilde (1854-1900) was subjected during some of the two-year sentence he received after being convicted of gross indecency.

Lindsay Lohan on treadmill, Planet Fitness Super Bowl commercial, 2022.

The figurative senses allude to the way running on a treadmill requires continued effort and motion in order to remain in the same place and it’s used to refer either to one’s continued application to a specific task without making discernible progress towards the goal or the general idea of being “stuck in a rut”, leading a repetitive existence.  The idea for the familiar modern device dates from the early twentieth century and in medicine, sports and the military, variations emerged as required but by the 1970s, they became a standard piece of gym equipment and have become increasingly elaborate, linked to diagnostic and monitoring sensors and even the generation of electricity, some commercial operations granting users credits against the charges for use.

The term "euphemism treadmill" was coined by Harvard professor and psycholinguist Steven Pinker (b 1954) to describe the process by which euphemisms become as emotionally or politically loaded as the words supplanted.  It was the same idea as “euphemism cycle” which University of Oregon linguist Sharon Henderson Taylor had mentioned as long ago as 1974 but more exact in that the process is lineal rather the cyclical; once cancelled, euphemisms seem forever doomed.  Linguists call this the move from euphemism to dysphemism and while it’s impossible to know how long this has existed as a social phenomenon, the implications differ greatly between (1) purely oral cultures, (2) one where written or other records exist and (3) the digital era.  It’s now not uncommon for words individuals used decades earlier (at a time when use was either common or at least tolerated) to be produced so an understanding of historical context matters.  The word retard for example was once thought neutral and inoffensive compared with the earlier terms (idiot, imbecile & moron) which had migrated from clinical use to become slurs used as general-purpose insults against anyone.  Retard suffered the same fate and it may be the currently acceptable terminology (intellectual disability, individual with an intellectual disability & intellectually and developmentally disabled) will undergo the same process although none roll of the tongue as easily as retard and IDD is not effortless so they may endure as neutral.  The solution, Pinker pointed out, was that people should be educated to "think differently" about the subject, substituting euphemisms when progress inevitably from sanitized to slurs just kicks the can down the road. 

Structurally though, the process can be seen as inevitable because it’s associative, a product of the interplay between a descriptor and that it denotes.  Gay (a word with a centuries-long history in sexual politics) emerged in the late twentieth century as the preferred term to replace all the slurs referring to homosexuals, recommended by many even as preferable to homosexual which, despite being a neutral descriptive formation, had come to be regarded by many as a slur or term of derision.  Of course, being associative, gay soon came also to be used as a slur (and as a synonym for strange, weird, un-cool or queer (in its more traditional sense)) though the negative application is now socially proscribed so gay in its modern sense may survive.  So, the change of a descriptor doesn’t necessarily change attitudes.  Just because gay became preferred to homosexual didn’t mean homophobia vanished although, interestingly, although there’s a record of the word gayphobia from as early as the 1990s, it never caught on.

Lindsay Lohan on treadmill, Planet Fitness Super Bowl Commercial, 2022.

Of interest too is the succession of terms which replaced the infamous N-word.  Negro (which probably already is N-word 2.0 except in historic references) was in the 1960s used in the sense of something purely descriptive by mainstream figures such as John Kennedy (1917-1963; US president 1961-1963) and civil rights activist Martin Luther King (1929-1968) but it too came to be regarded as slur and was replaced by black.  Negro did though have an interesting history.  When first used in print in English in the mid-sixteenth century it was nearly always capitalized, the uncapitalized use beginning to appear in the late eighteenth century and becoming the standard form in twentieth although there were activists who insisted an initial capital was justified as a mark of respect, despite this being etymologically dubious.  It’s now rare because it carries connotations of earlier discrimination although remains acceptable in context, such as when used by the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).

The matter of capitalization had also affected the use of black, some activists claiming its should be capitalized whereas white should not and that too is a purely political argument given the word initially gained currency because it was thought white’s linguistic equivalent.  In many ways that was true but it was controversial because, as used, it wasn’t exactly synonymous with Negro which is why the more precise African American became popular in the 1980s, again for reasons of seeking social equivalence (Polish-Americans, Italian-Americans, Irish-Americans etc).  Black, in practice, is often used to refer to dark-skinned people whether or not of African descent and for this reason it became unfashionable.  Other sub-sets have also moved in their own direction, the Fox News audience now preferring “the 13%”.

The distinction between colored people and people of color puzzles some but is entirely due to the historical association of colored and colored people with racism both subtle and overt.  People of color is a construction without the baggage and to date has generally be used to assert identity or in a celebratory sense and technically it’s a synonym for non-white because all those not white can so self-classify.  However, language evolves and there’s no guarantee "people of color" & "POC" won’t evolve to become slurs.  So, it can be a linguistic minefield and while the general principle is that people should be described as they wish to be described (or referenced not at all), at least for now, "people of color" seems safe despite a critique which suggests it entrenches the notion of "whiteness" as the apex of desirability and consigns all other skin tones to a kind of miscellany of "the other".

Routine

Routine (pronounced roo-teen)

(1) A customary or regular course of procedure.

(2) Commonplace tasks, chores, or duties as must be done regularly or at specified intervals; typical or everyday activity.

(3) Regular, unvarying, habitual, unimaginative, or rote procedure.

(4) An unvarying and constantly repeated formula, as of speech or action; convenient or predictable response; in informal use something perfunctory or insincere; merely procedural.

(5) In computer programming, a complete set of coded instructions directing a computer to perform a series of operations; that series of operations (also as sub-routine (as part of a larger routine) & co-routine (run in conjunction) although few programmers use the hyphens).

(6) In entertainment, an individual act, performance, or part of a performance, as a song or dance, given regularly by an entertainer.

(7) Of the nature of, proceeding by, or adhering to routine.

(8) Dull or uninteresting; commonplace.

(9) One of the key concepts in ethnomethodology (a discipline in sociology focused on the methods groups use to create societal order) and related to routinization of authority, the process through which a charismatic authority becomes a bureaucracy

(10) As RAT (routine activity theory), a sub-field of criminology.

(11) In poker, as Royal Routine, an alternative name for the royal straight flush.

1670–1680: From the Middle English routine (customary course of action; more or less mechanical performance of certain acts or duties), from the sixteenth century French routine from the Middle French route (road, route), from the Old French route & rote (usual course of action, beaten path; a customary way), the construct being rout(e) + -ine (a diminutive suffix), from the Latin rupta (broken, ruptured, burst), perfect passive participle of rumpō, from the Proto-Italic rumpō (break, I break, I violate), from the primitive Indo-European Hrunépti & Hrumpénti (to break), from the root Hrewp-.  Routine is a noun & adjective, routineness, routinization & routiner are nouns, routinize is a verb and routinely is an adverb; the noun plural is routines.

Routine can be merely descriptive of something periodic or a construct and thus neutral or convey something negative in the sense in which the synonyms include conventional, everyday, ordinary, rut, humdrum, unremarkable, habitual, perfunctory & insincere.  In other European languages the descendants include the Catalan (rutina), Dutch (routine), Galician (rutina), Hungarian (rutin), Italian (routine), Portuguese (rotina), Spanish (rutina) & Turkish (rutin).  The rather unhappy noun of action routinization (a being or becoming routine; action of imposing a routine upon) was a creation of US English in 1916 as a development from the verb routinize (subject to a routine, make into a routine) which dates from 1893.  The adjectival sense "of a mechanical or unvaried character, habitually done in the same way" has been used since at least 1917 and was a direct development from the noun.  The now familiar theatrical or athletic performance sense of "carefully rehearsed sequence of actions" dates only from 1926.

In the context of the card game, the word poker is an adaptation of US English of uncertain origin and there’s no evidence of any relationship to other meanings.  Quite why the card game was so-named has attracted speculation but no documentary evidence has ever emerged.  It may be related to the German Pochspiel (a similar card game) from the German pochen (to brag as a bluff (literally "to knock, rap” (and thus the suggested link to the verb poke))) from the Middle High German bochen & puchen, from the Proto-Germanic puk-, which is probably imitative.  An alternative idea is that it was related to the French poquer from poque, (a similar card game and a move in pétanque (a form of boules (in the sense of the game, a shortening of the French jeu de boules)), a game played with metal bowls with origins in the south of France).  The earlier version of the game was in English called brag and the US form seems first to have been played in 1829 on the lower reaches of the Mississippi, presumably among riverboat gamblers and the location, with the French influences, does support some French connection in the etymology.  Interestingly, it appears the original form seems to have been played with a 20-card pack (10-J-Q-K-A) evenly dealt among four players; the full-deck version not played until the 1840s.

Lindsay Lohan's Royal Routine in The Parent Trap (1998)

The Royal Routine (more commonly known as the royal flush) is the least likely winning combination in five-card poker and cannot be beaten unless “agreed rules” are being played which includes an ascendency of suits; in that case, one Royal Routine can beat another, however unlikely such an occurrence may be.  Because in poker all suits are usually of equal value, most prefer to “split the pot” if, after a count-back, two or more hands are equal although rules for a variety of tie-break mechanisms have been defined.  In ascending order, the winning possibilities in poker are:

The Royal Routine (royal flush). The Ace down to the 10 in one suit.  Under standard poker rules, the odds against holding a Royal Routine are 649,739:1.

The straight flush: There are 40 different straight flush possibilities and the odds against are 72,192:1; although in a sense a Royal Routine is just another straight flush, it’s rarer because fewer cards are available for one to be assembled.

Four of a kind: Also called "quads", the odds against are 4,165:1.

Full house: Originally called the "full boat" (a hint of the game’s origins on the lower reaches of the Mississippi) 3744 different full house combinations are available and to players, few things are more annoying than having one’s full house beaten by another on a count-back.  The odds against are 4,165:1.

The flush: Any 5 cards of the same suit, non consecutive with the winning hand determined by the highest individual card held.  5148 different combinations of a flush are available and the odds against are 508.8019:1.

The straight: Originally known as the wheel (another allusion to the Mississippi, this one referencing the wheeled paddles of the ships which plied the route), any 5 consecutive ranked cards in multiple suits where the ace can be high or low (an ace high straight is also called the "broadway").  10240 different straight combinations are possible and the odds against are 253.8:1.

Three of a kind: In some circles called "the trips" or a "set", there are 54,912 different possibilities of 3 of a kind are available and the odds against are 46.32955:1

Two Pairs: There are 123,552 possible two pair combinations and it’s reputedly the game’s most over-bet hand; the odds against are 20.03535:1.

The pair: Any two cards of the same rank.  The odds against are 1.366477:1.

Card High:  The hand with the highest single card wins and there are over 2½ million winning combinations; the odds against are 0.9953015:1.

The Boeing B-29 Superfortress (one of the special Silverplate series) which dropped the one-off, uranium A-Bomb on Hiroshima on 6 August 1945 was named Enola Gay in honor of the mission commander’s mother (Enola Gay Tibbets (née Haggard).  Enola Gay is well known but on the Hiroshima mission were six other B-29s, two of which were named after poker hands (with scatologic graphics), reflecting the popularity of the game among the military.  The three reconnaissance planes which were tasked to report weather conditions over the possible target cities were Jabit III, Full House & Straight Flush; the mission reserve B-29 was Top Secret, Necessary Evil was the camera plane which photographed the bombing and The Great Artiste carried a scientific crew with monitoring equipment.  Poker was quite a thing then and when Richard Nixon (1913-1994; US president 1969-1974) in 1945 returned from his South Pacific tour of duty it was with thousands of dollars in poker winnings, his history including one rare Royal Routine and a prize pot of US$1500 won with a bluff on a pair of twos.

Breakaway

Breakaway (pronounced breyk-uh-wey)

(1) An act or instance of breaking away; secession; separation.

(2) A departure or break from routine or tradition.

(3) A person, thing or institution which breaks away.

(4) An object, used in theatrical productions as a prop, constructed easily to break or fall apart (also used to describe costumes designed quickly to be change and thus easily removed), especially upon impact; by extension, anything deliberately constructed of lightweight material or in such a way as to shatter or come apart easily, sometimes as a safety feature.

(5) In ice hockey, a sudden rush down the ice by a player or players in an attempt to score a goal, after breaking clear of defending opponents.

(6) In various codes of football, a run by an offensive player breaking through the defense for a long gain.

(7) In basketball, a term for the fast break.

(8) In rugby union, two forwards positioned at the side of the scrum (also called flankers).

(9) In Australian rural slang, an animal that breaks away from the herd or flock or a synonym for a stampede of a number of beasts.

(10) In Australian geographical slang, an eroding steep slope on the edge of a plateau; an escarpment; a channel of floodwater that has burst from its usual course; or the track or channel eroded by the water (archaic).

(11) Of, relating to, or being that which separates or secedes.

(12) In horse racing, a premature start.

(13) In bicycle racing, a individual or group of riders which has gone ahead of the peloton (the main group).

(14) In the entertainment industry, enjoying sudden & rapid popular success as a result of one role, release etc (archaic, now called “break-out”).

(15) In geopolitics, a sometimes used alternative descriptor for the renegade province of Taiwan. 

1885–1895: A noun & adjectival form based on the (verb) phrase “break away”.  Break was from the Middle English breken, from the Old English brecan (to break), from the Proto-West Germanic brekan, from the Proto-Germanic brekaną (to break), from the primitive Indo-European breg- (to break).  Away was from the Middle English away, awey, awei, oway, o wey & on way, from the Old English āweġ & onweġ (away), the original form being on weġ (on one's way; onward; on), the construct being a- (on) +‎ way (a road; direction).  It was cognate with the Scots awa & away (away), the Old Frisian aweg & awei (away), the Saterland Frisian wäch & wääge (away), the Dutch weg (away), the German weg (away), the Danish væk (away) and the Swedish i väg (away; off; along).

The phrase “break away”, in the sense "disengage oneself abruptly, escape" dates from the 1530s.  The late nineteenth century breakaway was used to describe physical objects, especially specifically engineered theatre props.  The use in sport was noted first in 1906 while the hyphenated break-away seems initially to have been used to describe those individuals associated with breakaway movements but a convention of use never emerged.  The use to describe splinter groups or anything schismatic began in the adjectival sense in the 1930s and was so joined by the noun and in that context the synonyms include breakup, separation, defection, dissension, disunion, division, parting, rift, rupture, schism, split, disaffiliation, & splinter group.

All Blacks vs the Barbarians, Cardiff Arms Park, 1973.

Rugby Union is noted, inter alia, for some inconsistencies in the names applied to positions.  The reasons for this are historical as the game’s origins lie in the early nineteenth century at a time when communication was slow and irregular between the parts of the British Empire (and the US) where it was played.  Nomenclature thus evolved in bubbles (as did some rules) and it seems that in Australia and New Zealand, the terminology could differ even between provinces.  Despite professionalism, some of the differences persist to this day which is why mysterious terms like “second five-eight” and “wing three quarter” still sometimes baffle neophyte audiences.  The breakaway is now more commonly called the “flanker” and there are blindside flankers (No 6) and openside flankers (No 7), the distinction being that the No 7 attaches (loosely) to the scrum on whichever side is further from the nearer touchline.  Breakaways are there to tackle the opposition and hopefully steal the ball and, although not tightly bound to the scrum, do contribute to its rigidity by applying lateral force.  The breakaways are the most obvious variation from the formation used in the breakaway (the split from rugby union dating from 1895) code of rugby league which otherwise uses the same positions and field placements, although, reflecting the later, more codified origin, the terminology tends to be more consistent between nations.

Breakaways: GAFCON and the Diocese of Southern Cross.

Belonging to a long tradition of splits, squabbles, schisms and general fissiparousness in Christianity and other faiths, congregations of Australia’s breakaway faction of the Anglican Church this week began meeting in suburban clubs and halls.  Modest though the surrounds might have been, the turbulent priests are not all that lonely in their walk, joining the Global Anglican Future Conference (GAFCON), an umbrella breakaway group dividing the Anglican Church in many countries.

GAFCON’s core objections are to the “revisionist interpretations” of the Bible by Anglican bishops, a slippery slide of “heresies” which have permitted the ordination of women, the blessing of same-sex marriages and a permissive attitude towards divorce.  Accordingly, the Diocese of Southern Cross was recently launched at a GAFCON conference in Canberra, the announcement made by its new bishop, Glenn Davies (b 1950; Archbishop of Sydney 2013-2021), the Anglican church’s former archbishop of Sydney.  In a statement which was a lament rather that a celebration, the bishop noted it was “…a sad day, in many ways”, adding that “…if the leadership would repent and turn back to the teachings of the bible, we wouldn’t need the Diocese of Southern Cross. I’d shut it down and come back.”  He denied procuring worshipers from other congregations, saying “I’m not luring people in, I’m not recruiting; I’m providing a safe haven and they can come to me.”

The way things used to be done.  St George's Anglican Church, Beenleigh, Queensland, Australia.

The Australian event is the latest expansion of a movement that is dividing the communion in many countries with rebel dioceses having already been formed in North America, South America, Africa and Europe and there are many who concede the schism has already evolved to the point where it must be acknowledged there are now two Anglican Churches in the US.  The nature of religiosity among Christians in Australia is however different from the US experience, both qualitatively and quantitatively.  Anglicanism was between white settlement in 1788 and the twenty-first century, at least nominally, most numerous denomination in Australia but the most recent census data revealed Anglican affiliation dropped more than any other religion in the past five years, from 3.1 to 2.5 million people, almost one in five and fewer than 10% of the population now self-identify as Anglican.  Of this declining sect of Christianity, many predict the breakaway Diocese of Southern Cross will grow but it’s unlikely to assume the critical mass such movements can attain in Africa and the Americas, simply because there simply aren’t enough folk who take religion that seriously.

The new way.  The first service of the Diocese of Southern Cross was held in a meeting room of the Beenleigh RSL (Returned Services League) & Golf Club.

 The breakaway GAFCON is not a new formation.  The culmination of the internal stresses visible in the Anglican communion since the 1968 Lambeth Conference, GAFCOM coalesced over three conferences held between 2008-2018, convened by conservative Anglican bishops and leaders concerned about the establishment’s positions on issues such as the ordination of women, secularism, HIV/AIDS , the matter of gay clergy and marriage equality.  Provocatively held one month prior to the 2008 Lambeth Conference, GAFCON made clear it existed because of heresy, the revisionist "false gospel" which since the 1960s had become part of Anglican orthodoxy, claiming it denied the uniqueness of Jesus Christ and promoted a corrosive cultural relativism which accepted a "variety of sexual preferences and immoral behavior as a universal human right".  These matters had been debated by the factions for years but it was the consecration of the confessed (and non-celibate) homosexual Vicky Gene Robinson (b 1947; Bishop of the Episcopal Diocese of New Hampshire 2004-2013) as a bishop by the Episcopal Church in the US which induced the conservative faction be explore an institutional formation, either to “march through the institution” or form a separate church, depending on how the numbers fell.

As things turned out in 2008, it seemed clear a takeover wasn’t (yet) a practical proposition but that GAFCON would continue as a concept.  What was decided was to create in North America, where the threat seemed greatest, a kind of parallel church, an ecclesiastical structure which would cater for conservative Anglicans, a mechanism possible the communiqué asserted because the Archbishop of Canterbury is not a pope and his recognition of an institution is not required to secure a presence within the Anglican Communion.  In a nice touch, the 1662 Book of Common Prayer was called "a true and authoritative standard of worship and prayer”.  Lambeth Palace, predictably, while noting the breakaway’s position was fraught with theological and structural difficulties, otherwise did nothing.  Schisms sometimes flourish, sometimes fade away, sometimes are re-absorbed by the establishment and sometimes cause wars.  With the Lambeth Conference having just concluded, attention will now turn to at least three of those options.

The word “breakaway” can be used of used of Hollywood starlets who wish to break away from the innocent persona of their youth (left), chocolate bars with a wafer centre (a la the Kit Kat) (centre) and devices designed to break away from their connection at a certain stress point (right).

Alligate

Alligate (pronounced al-i-geyt)

To attach; to bind together (obsolete).

1535–1545: As alligāte, from the Latin alligātus (tied, bound), past participle of alligāre & second-person plural present active imperative of alligō (I bind), the construct being al- + lig- (bind) + -ate.  In Latin, the al- prefix was a euphonic alteration of ad-, assimilating the D into the initial L of the word the prefix is applied to.  The English form was from the Middle English al-, from the Old English eal- & eall- (all-).  The suffix -ate was a word-forming element used in forming nouns from Latin words ending in -ātus, -āta, & -ātum (such as estate, primate & senate).  Those that came to English via French often began with -at, but an -e was added in the fifteenth century or later to indicate the long vowel.  It can also mark adjectives formed from Latin perfect passive participle suffixes of first conjugation verbs -ātus, -āta, & -ātum (such as desolate, moderate & separate).  Again, often they were adopted in Middle English with an –at suffix, the -e appended after circa 1400; a doublet of –ee.  The only word with which alligate might have been confused was the early thirteenth century allgate (all of the time, on all occasions (and by mid century "in every way")), probably from the Old Norse phrase alla gotu (a way); it picked up the adverbial genitive -s from the late fourteenth century to become allgates.  Fortunately though, both alligate & allgate are obsolete although alligate does occasionally appear in literary fiction, something which delights some and annoys others.  Alligate, alligating & alligated are verbs and alligation is a noun; the noun plural is alligations.

Alligators and crocodiles

The reptile alligator is a crocodilian in the genus Alligator of the family Alligatoridae, two species of which remain extant, the American alligator (A. mississippiensis) and the Chinese (A. sinensis), a number of extinct species known from the fossil record, the first dating from the Oligocene epoch, some 37 million years ago.  The word alligator is thought to be an anglicized form of the mid-sixteenth century Spanish el lagarto (the lizard), the construct being el (the) + lagarto (lizard), from the Vulgar Latin lacertus (lizard), the term adopted by early Spanish explorers in Florida and reflecting this, the early (an now extinct) spellings in English included alligater, alligarta, aligarto, alegarto & alagarto, many probably the result of transcription from oral sources.  It wasn’t until 1807 that the spelling in English was settled as alligator and that was thought to be influenced by the previously unrelated Latin alligāte (to attach; to bind together), those involved in the early taxonomy of zoology and botany always anxious to maintain a Classical connection.  In that it was probably alligāte’s last contribution to English.

A difference best assessed at a safe distance.

Looking very similar to untrained eyes, alligators and crocodiles are both large, lizard-like reptiles famous for their large, powerful jaws, sharp teeth, long tails, and skin which varies from the thick and plated protective covering on the upper body and the softer skin on the belly, the much sought-after examples being those with the patterns and colours best suited to handbags, shoes and upholstery.  Alligators tend to be darker and have broader snout and when in the water, usually lurk under the surface, with only the eyes visible.  In contrast, crocodiles typically hold the top of their head out of the water and a distinguishing physical difference is visible when the jaws are closed, only the only their upper teeth of an alligator displayed but both the upper and lower teeth of crocodiles remain exposed .  Alligators now live almost exclusively in the south-eastern US and eastern China whereas crocodiles are found in the tropical areas of Africa, Asia, the Americas, and Australia.  The once common co-habitation of the species in the wild is now rare but has been documented in southern Florida.  Taxonomically, alligators and crocodiles are not only separate  species but belong to different genera (alligators belong to the genus Alligator, crocodiles belong to the Crocodylus) but both are of the order Crocodylia, so to refer to them all as crocodilians is correct, reflecting the divergence long ago from the last common ancestor (LCA).  They behave differently, crocodiles usually more aggressive than alligators although in Australia there are the “freshwater crocodiles” which are notably more passive though the terminology can be dangerously misleading, “saltwater crocodiles” inhabiting rivers and lakes.  Along with birds, they are the only living descendants of the ancient archosaurs.

The alligator clip

It’s a charming linguistic coincidence that the alligator clip (which attaches things together), named apparently because of the visual similarity to the reptile’s jaws, seems also linked to the Latin alligāte (to attach; to bind together).  That’s almost certainly not true but, if it did at the time occur to anyone, it definitely was alligāte’s last contribution to English.  Curiously, in some markets they’re called crocodile clips although internationally, there’s no difference in technical specification noted between the two and it seems only localized traditions of use which account for the two names (a la cantaloupe v rock melon, aubergine v eggplant etc).

Despite that, had the industry wished, product differentiation would have been possible because in the products available, there are variations in design which align with the anatomical variations between the reptiles.  There are clips with U shaped and V shaped jaws so they could have been named differently although the manufacturers don’t respect the variations in dental anatomy, both types produced with one or both rows of teeth visible when the jaws are closed and there are specialized clips with one row or none.  One noted adaptation is the alligator hairclip with elongated, curved, jaws.

Lindsay Lohan with alligator hair clips in place (left) and an alligator hair clip in three aspects (left).  Ms Lohan recommends using alligator clips to keep hair temporarily restrained while one is performing one's skin-care routine.

Tape

Tape (pronounced teyp)

(1) A long, narrow strip of linen, cotton, or the like, used for tying garments, binding seams or carpets etc.

(2) A long, narrow strip of paper, metal etc.

(3) A strip of cloth, paper, or plastic with an adhesive surface, used for sealing, binding, or attaching items together; adhesive tape or masking tape; the trade-name “Scotch Tape” is often used as a generic descriptor.

(4) As tape measure, a flexible type of ruler, especially useful for measuring curved shapes.

(5) As finishing tape, the string stretched across the finishing line in a race and broken by the winning contestant on crossing the line; also sometimes incorrectly referred to as “finishing line” which technically is the line marked on the ground.

(6) In financial trading or news dissemination, a paper tape on which a stock ticker, news ticker or similar device would print incoming information (obsolete although the concept is still used in digital form).

(7) As magnetic tape, a usually re-usable media used to record, store and retrieve information and mounted in devices such as tape recorders, tape decks, tape arrays and tape drives, the physical tape on spools or in cassettes; in more precise forms as audio tape, data tape, videotape etc.

(8) To furnish with a tape or tapes.

(9) To tie up, bind, or attach with tape.

(10) To measure with or as if with a tape measure.

(11) To record on magnetic tape (although the phrase “to tape” is used also to refer to recording and similar activities even when no physical tape is used.

(12) As red tape, a slang term referencing bureaucratic inefficiency and delay, named after the literal red (actually often a shade of mauve) for centuries used in the British civil service to secure un-bound files.

(13) In mechanical printing, a strong flexible band rotating on pulleys for directing the sheets in a printing machine (mostly obsolete).

Pre 1000: From the Middle English tape (an unexplained variant of tappe), from the Old English tæppa & tæppe (ribbon, strip (of cloth), literally “part torn off”), akin to the Middle Low German tappen & tāpen (to grab, pull, rip, tear, snatch, pluck) and related to the Old Frisian tapia (to pull, rip, tear), the Middle High German zāfen & zāven (to pull, tear) and the Middle Dutch tapen (to tear).  The source of the Old English tæppa & tæppe is uncertain but etymologists suggest they may be back-formations from the Latin tapete (cloth, carpet).  The original short vowel became long in Middle English.  Tape & taping are nouns & verbs and taped is a verb; the noun plural is tapes.

Many other languages picked up tape or localized variations including Danish (tape), Dutch (tape), Hausa (têf), Hindi (टेप (ṭep)), Irish (téip), Japanese テープ (tēpu), Korean (테이프 (teipeu)), Norwegian (both Nynorsk & Bokmål) (tape & teip), Swahili (tepe), Swedish (tape & tejp), Thai (เทป (téep)), Tibetan (ཊེབ (ṭeb)), Turkish (teyp), Phalura (ṭeép) and Welsh (tâp) although, since tape began to be used in the context recording & storage media, the English “tape” is often used even if a local form exists in the sense of “to bind” or “a strip of fabric” etc.  The word is widely used as an element (tapeworm, magnetic-tape, tape-drive, tape-machine, tape-gun, tape-loader, tape-recorder, ticker tape, tape-measure, cassette tape etc) and there are a wide variety of adhesive tapes (electrical tape, duct tape, gaffer tape (originally gaffer's tape) sticky tape, Scotch tape & Sellotape (both registered trademarks), masking tape, packing (or packaging or parcel) tape, insulating (or insulation) tape etc), each with a slightly different specification dictated by their intended purpose or spot in the market. 

Tape scene: Lindsay Lohan as Tess Conway in Freaky Friday (2003).

Adhesive tape dates from 1885 and until the form prevailed, the product was known also as friction tape and two of the best-known, Gaffer tape and duct tape are often confused but, being designed for different purposes, are not interchangeable; distinct in construction and intended application, there can be unfortunate consequences if one is used for tasks where the other would be more appropriate.  The first tape recorders in the modern sense of a "device for recording sound on magnetic tape" were available for sale in 1932 and were then “reel-to-reel” machines, a re-use of the 1892 application describing a "device for recording data on ticker tape", that tape in the sense of "paper strip of a printer", dating from 1884.  Strangely, the verb form “tape-record” seems not to have be used prior to 1950 although the technology had for first been used in 1928; audio-tape is said to from 1957 whereas, counter-intuitively, videotape is attested as a noun from 1953 and a verb from 1958, the explanation being that tape was more widely used earlier in film & television production than in the recording industry which needed less storage space until technologies like LP (long-playing) records and stereo were adopted.  The tape-measure is attested from 1873 and the technical phrase “tape-delay” is from 1968 although the associated techniques had been in use for some time.  The disgusting tapeworm was first named in 1705, so called for its ribbon-like shape.

The phrase red tape (official bureaucratic routine or formula especially the excessive rigmarole), dates from 1736 and refers to the red tape (often also a shade of mauve), formerly used in the British civil service (and many of the colonies including the Raj) for binding up legal and other official documents, the item (requisitioned by the roll) mentioned in the civil service supply lists fist in the 1690s.  The familiar Sellotape was first sold in the UK in 1949 and is a proprietary name of a popular brand of cellulose or plastic adhesive tape.  The noun cassette, much associated with magnetic tape is from the 1793 French cassette (a little box), from a diminutive of the Old North French casse (box) and the first cassettes in the sense of "magnetic tape cartridge" is from 1960.  The ticker tape dates from 1891 and was the actual physical paper tape on which was printed the information (stock prices, news etc) and was derive from the 1883 ticker (telegraphic device for recording stock market quotations), so made because the printing was by means of impact and thus made a ticking sound when in operation.

Marilyn Monroe's dress

Kim Kardashian (b 1980) wore to the 2022 Met Gala the marquisette dress made famous by Marilyn Monroe (1926-1962) when she appeared to sing happy birthday Mr President to President Kennedy (1917-1963; US president 1961-1963) during a Democratic Party fundraiser at Madison Square Garden on 19 May 1962, ten days before the actual birthday.  Within three months, she would be dead.

It couldn’t be expected to cause quite the same stir as sixty years earlier because, cut from a sheer, silk marquisette that almost exactly matched Ms Monroe’s skin-tone, the 2500 hand-sewn rhinestones were intricately positioned to respond to the particular gait she chose for that evening and, under the limelight in the darkened amphitheater, as she moved, the crystals sparkled and the dress came alive.  It was quite a design.  In the hard, white light of the Met Gala’s red carpet, it couldn’t be expected to work the magic it did all those years ago and, not shimmering in the darkness, it seemed lifeless and perhaps it would have benefited from the contrast her lustrous natural hair would have lent but Ms Kardashian wore it well, attracting admiration (and criticism from the usual suspects) too for the reasonable achievement of shedding some 16 lbs (7¼ KG) in three weeks to ensure a comfortable fit.  Digesting the implications of that, keen-eyed fashionistas noted the vintage white coat which Ms Kardashian kept strategically positioned below the small of her back for the ritual walk to and up the staircase, some taking to Twitter to wonder if it was there to conceal that things were quite fully done-up.

The theory is plausible; it’s always been known that in 1962, Ms Monroe had to be “sewn-into” the dress just before the performance.  The day after the Met Gala, photographs circulated purporting to show Ms Kardashian with a generously sized, pear-shaped lacuna between the seams, accompanied with the accusation that the images showing things done up had been digitally modified and the haters were certainly out, one distressed soul lamenting that for Ms Kardashian to wear the dress "...was an absolute disgrace, a tacky photo opportunity" and that "...one of the most important items of clothing in history, is now tainted with the stain of the Kardashians."  There are people who do take pop-culture very seriously.  The green dress she changed into after her ascent had similar lines (and perhaps slightly more generous dimensions) but was certainly done-up and anyway, in either, she looked gorgeous. 

Kim Kardashian demonstrating gaffer tape used in a way not included in the manufacturer's instructions, February 2016.

On that night in 1962, Ms Munroe eschewed underwear but, despite the absent 16 pounds, in 2022 there was still a little more to accommodate than that for which the original structural engineering was designed to cope.  Fortunately, through long practice and extensive product development, Ms Kardashian has some expertise in invisible support, in February 2016 publishing her findings:

“I’ve used everything from duct tape to packing tape to masking tape and I think that the best I’ve found is gaffer's tape,” she said.  "It sticks the best. Make sure you don't have any lotion or oils on when you're lifting your boobs up with the tape.  Just brace yourself for when it's time to take it off, LOL."

That was of course the problem, gaffer tape intended to stick to a range of dry surfaces including timber, metal and carpet but certainly not human skin, the consequences including irritation, reddening and even losing layers of skin.  In response, Ms Kardashian developed a tape which combined the functionality of gaffer tape with the strength and durability to support the weight yet able to be removed with the effortlessness of surgical tape, leaving the skin un-damaged.  Such tapes have been sold for a while, the industry jargon being “tit tape” but the Kardashian version is claimed to be better and, significantly, available in three tones which should suit most skin colors.  Simply called “Body Tape”, it comes in rolls and can be cut to suit, preparation otherwise limited to peeling off the paper backing before applying to achieve the desired effect.  Borrowing from the concept of gaffer tape, Body Tape is reinforced with a flexible stretch cotton, designed to be not too flexible because it needs to stretch only to accommodate human movement while retaining a natural look; it must therefore exist in a “goldilocks zone”, that sweet spot between elasticity and rigidity.

On her Skims website, there’s a helpful promotional video demonstrating Body Tape being applied to a model, the commentary emphasizing it needs to be placed at an angle which will suit the clothing with which it’s to be worn and that typically will mean describing a diagonal angle which will vary according to the neckline being accommodated.  It’s a process which might be better done by two so it’s something couples can enjoy together although, with practice, presumably one would become adept at taping one’s self.  When clothed, the results were impressive though obviously results will vary according to technique and the raw material involved.  The final test was of course was the removal, the reason Body Tape was developed and, without any obvious discomfort, the model peeled off the tape.  "That wasn't painful at all", cheerfully she confirmed.

Skims Body Tape (edited highlights).

The Watergate tapes and the erased 18½ minutes

Looking over his shoulder: Richard Nixon (1913-1994; US president 1969-1974, right) and HR Haldeman (1926–1993; White House chief of staff 1969-1973, left) in the White House.

Tapes, audio and video, have played a part in many political downfalls but none is more famous than the “smoking gun” tape which compelled the resignation of Richard Nixon after it revealed he was involved in the attempt to cover-up the involvement in the Watergate break-in of some connected to his administration.  Recording conversations in the White House had been going on for years and Nixon initially had the equipment removed, the apparatus re-installed two years later after it was found there was no other way to ensure an accurate record of discussions was maintained.  Few outside a handful of the president’s inner circle knew of the tapes and they became public knowledge only in mid-1973 when, under oath before a congressional hearing, a White House official confirmed their existence.  That was the point at which Nixon should have destroyed the tapes and for the rest of his life he must sometimes have reflected that but for that mistake, his presidency might have survived because, although by then the Watergate scandal had been a destabilizing distraction, there was at that point no “smoking gun”, nothing which linked Nixon himself to any wrongdoing.  As it was, he didn’t and within days subpoenas were served on the White House demanding the tapes and that made them evidence; the moment for destruction had passed.  Nixon resisted the subpoenas, claiming executive privilege and thus ensued the tussle between the White House and Watergate affair prosecutors which would see the “Saturday Night Massacre” during which two attorneys-general were fired, the matter ultimately brought before the US Supreme Court which ruled against the president.  Finally, the subpoenaed tapes were surrendered on 5 August 1973, the “smoking gun” tape revealing Nixon HR Haldeman, 1926–1993 (White House chief of staff 1969-1973) discussing a cover-up plan and at that point, political support in the congress began to evaporate and the president was advised that impeachment was certain and even Republican senators would vote to convict.  On 8 August, Nixon announced his resignation, leaving office the next day.

Uher 5000 reel-to-reel tape recorder used by a White House secretary to create the tape (20 June 1972) with the infamous 18½ minute gap (government exhibit #60: Records of District Courts of the United States, Record Group 21, (National Archives Identifier): 595593).

To this day, mystery surrounds one tape in particular, a recording of a discussion between Nixon and Halderman on 20 June 1972, three days after the Watergate break-in.  Of obviously great interest, when reviewed, there was found to be a gap of 18½ minutes, the explanations offered of how, why or by whom the erasure was effected ranging from the humorously accidental to the darkly conspiratorial but half a century on, it remains a mystery.  Taking advantage of new data-recovery technology, the US government did in subsequent decades make several attempts to “un-delete” the gap but without success and it may be, given the nature of magnetic tape, literally there is nothing left to find.  However, the tape is stored in a secure, climate-controlled facility in case technical means emerge and while it’s unlikely the contents would reveal anything not already known or assumed, it would be of great interest to historians.

What might be more interesting still is the identity of who it was that erased those infamous 18½ minutes but that will likely never be known; after fifty years, it’s thought that were there to be any death-bed confessions, they should by now have been utterd.  Some have their lists of names of those who might have "pressed the erase button" and while mostly sub-sets of Watergate's "usual suspects", one who tends not to appear is Nixon himself, the usual consensus being his well-known ineptitude in handling modern technology would rendered him a most unlikely editor though it's at least possible he ordered someone to do the deed.  However it happened, the suspects most often mentioned as having had their "finger on the button" (which may have been a foot-pedal) are Nixon's secretary and his chief of staff.  The long-serving secretary (Rose Mary Woods, 1917–2005) actually admitted to “inadvertently” erasing some 4-5 minutes of the recording by way of the “terrible mistake” of putting her foot on the “wrong pedal” while stretching to answer the desk telephone.  In explanation, she demonstrated how it happened (a reasonable piece of office gymnastics which reporters dubbed the “Rose Mary Stretch”) but always maintained there was no way she was responsible for a longer gap.  Halderman always denied any involvement in the mystery and Nixon always maintained he was shocked and disappointed when told of the silence.