Niche

Niche (pronounced nĭch (U) or nēsh (Non-U))

(1) In architecture, a cavity, hollow or recess, generally within the thickness of a wall and usually semicircular in plan and arched, for a statue, bust, or other erect ornament; in interior decorating the synonym is nook.

(2) Any similar recess, such as one in a rock face.

(3) Figuratively, any similar position such as (1) a place or position suitable or appropriate for a person or thing or (2) a distinct or specialised segment of a market.

(4) In ecology, the role of a plant or animal within its community and habitat which determines its activities and relationships with other organisms.

(5) In contrast radiography, an eroded or ulcerated area.

(6) In Islam, an arrow woven into a Muslim prayer rug pointing in the direction of Mecca (qibla).

(7) In the funeral industry, as cremation niche; a columbarium.

1605-1615: From the Middle English niche (shallow recess in a wall), probably from the Old & Middle French niche (recess (for a dog), kennel), a back formation from nicher (to make a nest), from the unattested Vulgar Latin nīdiculāre, from the Classical Latin nīdus (nest), the words niche & nicher enduring in Modern French.  Niche was a doublet of nidus and nide via the Latin and the related nest via the primitive Indo-European and was related also to nyas.  Some etymologists are not convinced by the notion of a direct Latin root and trace the French niche (recess (for a dog), kennel) to a fourteenth century borrowing from the Italian nicchia (niche, nook) derived from nicchio (seashell).  The dissidents note the link to the Latin mitulus (mussel) but also the lack of any documentary evidence for the change of -m- to -n-.  The origin in the Old French noun derived from nichier is said to come via the Gallo-Romance nidicare from Latin nidus (nest) but it remains one of those insoluble disputes in linguistics.  The figurative sense was first recorded in 1725, the use in ecology dating from 1927 and the contemporary coinings like niche market, multi-niche & niche player are all from the twentieth century.  Niche is a noun and nicher, nichering & nichered are verbs; the noun plural is niches.

Pronunciation

While the origin of niche is of interest only to the profession, the dispute over pronunciation has a wider audience: nĭch (the U version and phonetically nich) or nēsh (non-U and neesh)?  Many dictionaries (especially the descriptive) list both but those which offer only one (the prescriptive) insist on nitch.  The descriptive (and thus linguistically promiscuous) Merriam-Webster’s on-line presence lists several pronunciations for niche: nitch, neesh and nish, in a deliberate attempt to reflect English as it’s actually spoken while Webster’s more prescriptive print edition continues to insist on nich.  The Gallic-influenced neesh is said now to be the preferred US use.

Lindsay Lohan in Falling for Christmas (left) and Irish Wish with Triumph TR4 and body double (right).

In film, a niche differs from a franchise in that the former is a conceptual genre and independent of the characters, the latter thematic and generally dependent on the continuity of at least one character.  Lindsay Lohan’s two recent Netflix productions, Falling for Christmas (2022) & Irish Wish (slated for 2023) are in the rom-com (romantic comedy) niche.

There are two types of dictionaries: prescriptive and descriptive and most modern dictionaries are descriptive, meaning they attempt to describe the language as it’s used, including, explicitly or by implication, all pronunciation variants of a word used by educated speakers.  This approach does upset some purists but this is how English has always evolved, a slut of a language which picks up words which seem useful, uses them as required and dumps them when they’re outlived their usefulness.  It’s tempting to suggest those who read Trollope say nith, those who watch TikTok prefer neesh but if ever that was true,, it probably no longer is so, when in doubt, stick to the classics; niche should be pronounced nich.

Niche, nitch & the W113 notch

So things started with niche and later there came nitch which was (1) an alternative form of knitch (a small bundle), (2) a blend of nick + notch (a dialectal form meaning "a small notch or incision") and (3) a simple misspelling of niche which caught on.  In the collector car market there are many niches and while there’s overlap and some multi-niche players, niches are often siloed, one being the Mercedes-Benz W113.  The W113 was a small roadster of spare, elegant lines which was produced in 3 versions (230 SL, 250 SL & 280 SL) between 1963-1971 and is known among the cognoscenti as the “pagoda” an allusion to the unusual curve of the detachable hard-top, the arc described by the raised side-windows.  The successor roadster (the R107, 1971-1989) used a similar roof design but the pagoda moniker is unique to the W113.

1971 Mercedes-Benz 280 SL (W113, "pagoda").

Also unique to the W113 niche is the cult of the notch.  Part of the charm of the W113 and a proof it came from a time when Mercedes-Benz were rather more “hand-made” than now, were the leaded-seam “fender notches”, small creases in the fender, inboard of the headlights, which workers on the assembly line hand-shaped with tin, their purpose being to ensure the notch matched both the knik in the headlight surround and the crease on the outside of the fender.  That ensured perfect alignment (this was a time when the factory took seriously such intricate details of quality control) but were thought at the time just part of the manufacturing process and not publicized.  Thus, in the decades before the W113 became a collectable and long before originality became a fetish, repair shops when replacing fenders (supplied from the factory without a notch) wouldn’t fashion a notch one to match the one replaced, unaware perhaps even of their existence.  There were tales too of the factory’s notches even being smoothed-out as a “fix” when thought a defect although these stories may be apocryphal.  However, those who have had a replacement fender “notched” exactly to match the one removed will probably still not satisfy the originality police because the inner fender spot welds which affix the fender to the structure are said to have been done in a manner almost impossible to replicate.  It’s metal so it can be done but it’s not easy to convince the experts who judge such things.

By their notches they shall be known: Headlight notches (left & right) on 1970 Mercedes-Benz 280 SL.

Nictate

Nictate (pronounced nik-teyt)

To wink.

1690s: From the Medieval Latin nictitātus, from the Latin nictātus, past participle of nictāre (to wink, fidget, blink, signal with the eyes), inflection of nictō (to blink, to wink; to signal with the eyes (and figuratively (of fire) to flash and to strive, to exert great effort).  It was related to nicere (to beckon) and the ultimate source was the primitive Indo-European root kneigwh (to blink, to draw together (the eyes or eyelids)) (related to kneygwh (to bend, to droop), the source also of the Gothic hniewan and the Old High German nigan (to bow, be inclined).  It was cognate with connīveō, nītor (to bear or rest upon something).  Nictate, nictitated & nictitating are verbs, nictitate is an adjective and nictator & nictation are noun; the noun plurat is nictators.  Nictate was used from the 1690s, nictitated & nictitating emerged in the 1710s and nictitation in the 1820s.

The alteration nictitate

The intransitive verb nictitate is sometimes described as an alternative spelling of nictate but it’s more a niche alteration for a specialised niche.  Nictitate’s origins are the same as nictate, coming from the Latin word for winking, nictāre.  The addition of the extra syllable is thought to have been under the influence of Latin verbs ending in -itare, such as palpitare and agitare (from which, respectively, English gained palpitate and agitate).  The niche is in zoology, a role it’s played since scientists in the early eighteenth century began to describe a “nictitating membrane”, the so-called "third eyelid", the thin, usually transparent membrane in the eyes of birds, fishes, and other vertebrates, the function of which is to help keep the eyeball moist and clean.  In zoology, the word referred either to a wink or blink but when applied to humans (a species in which a wink can be a non-verbal clue transmitting meaning) it's used exclusively of winks.

Noted nictator, Lindsay Lohan, nictating.

Vladimir Putin (b 1952; president or prime minister of Russia since 1999).  Mr Putin is a known nictator and for those individuals (or countries) at which his nictations are directed, the consequences can be good or bad.  Simultaneously, Mr Putin can “turn a blind eye” while giving a “nod and a wink”.

The act of nictation (as wink) is featured in idiomatic English phrases including a nod is as good as a wink (the hint, suggestion etc can be understood without further explanation) (and sometimes embellished as a nod is as good as a wink to a blind horse which must mystify those learning the language), God winks (an event or personal experience, often identified as coincidence, so astonishing that it is seen as a sign of divine intervention, especially when perceived as the answer to a prayer), in the wink of an eye (something happening instantaneously or very quickly (in the blink of an eye and in the twinkling of an eye are both synonymous), forty winks (a brief sleep, a nap), a wink at (an allusion to something or someone) and nudge nudge wink wink (a hint that a euphemism is being deployed).  There’s also the ominous sounding butt wink (in the sport of weight-lifting, an error while performing a squat of bending the lower back and moving the pelvis in under the body).

Boutique

Boutique (pronounced boo-teek]

(1) A small shop, especially one that sells fashionable clothes and accessories or a special selection of other merchandise.

(2) Within a larger store, a small specialty department.

(3) As a modifier, any (usually small(ish)) business offering customized service (boutique law firm; boutique investment house; boutique winery etc).

(4) In informal use, a small business, department etc, specializing in one aspect of a larger industry (such as the “mining sector analysts”, “transport sector analysts” etch within a financial services research organization).

(5) Of, designating, denoting or characteristic of a small, specialized or exclusive producer (sometimes of the bespoke) or business (either attributive or self-applied).

1767: From the French boutique, from the Middle French, probably from the Old Provençal botica & botiga, from the Latin apotheca (storehouse), ultimately from the Ancient Greek apothēkē (apothecary) (storehouse).  The original meaning in the 1760s was “a small retail outlet (shop) of any sort” boutique, an inheritance from the fourteenth century French source and it wasn’t until the early 1950s it assumed the still familiar sense of “trendy little shop selling fashion items”.  The link with the mid-fourteenth century noun apothecary lay in its sense of “shopkeeper”, the notion of one being a place where is stored and sold “stores, compounds & medicaments (what is now described variously as “a pharmacy: or “chemist shop”) emerged quickly and soon became dominant.  The word was from the French apothicaire, from the Old French apotecaire, from the Late Latin apothecarius (storekeeper), from the Latin apotheca (storehouse)m from the Ancient Greek apothēkē (barn, storehouse (literally “a place where things are put away”)), the construct being apo- (away) + thēkē (receptacle (from a suffixed form of primitive Indo-European root dhe- (to set, put)).  The same Latin word produced French boutique, the Spanish bodega and the German Apotheke; the cognate compounds produced the Sanskrit apadha- (concealment) and the Old Persian apadana- (palace) and one quirk was that had the usual conventions been followed, the Latin apotheca would have emerged in French as avouaie.  The French masculine noun boutiquier (the plural boutiquiers; the feminine boutiquière) translates as “shopkeeper, storekeeper”.  Boutique is a noun & adjective and boutiquey & boutiquelike are adjectives; the noun plural is boutiques.  Of the adjectival use (resembling or characteristic of a boutique (however defined), the comparative is “more boutiquey”, the superlative “most boutiquey”).

Lindsay Lohan at the Singer22 boutique (described as the company’s “flagship store”), Long Island, New York, March 2011 (left) and at the opening of the Philipp Plein (b 1978) boutique, Mykonos, Greece, June 2019 (right).  Among fashion retailers, the term “boutique” is used both of high-end designer outlets and mass-market, high volume operations.  What the word implies can thus vary from “exclusive; expensive” to “trendy, edgy, celebrity influenced” etc.

Modern commerce understood the linguistic possibilities and that included the portmanteaus (1) fruitique (the construct being fruit + (bout)ique) (a trendy (ie high-priced) fruit shop in an area of high SES (socio-economic status)) and (2) postique (the construct being post(al) +‎ (bout)ique).  Originally, postique was a trademark of the USPS (US Postal Service) but it came to be used of retail stores selling items relating to postal mail (stamps, stationery and such).  One interesting trend in middle-class retailing has been the niche of the “boutiquey” stationery shop where the focus is on elegant versions of what are usually utilitarian office consumables; impressionistically, the client base appears almost exclusively female.  The “e-boutique” is an on-line retailer using the term to suggest its lines of garments are targeting a younger demographic.  The term “boutique camping” (services offering “going camping” without most of the discomforts (ie with air-conditioned tents, sanitation, running hot water etc) never caught on because the portmanteau “glamping” (the construct being glam(our) + cam(ping)) was preferred and, as a general principle, in popular use, a word with two syllables will tend to prevail over one with four.

By the 1970s, the term “boutique” had spread in fashion retailing to the extent it was part of general language; it tended to be understood as meaning “exclusive, small-scale fashion stores” which were in some way niche players (more on the cutting edge of design, specializing in a certain segment et al) in a way which contrasted with the large department stores.  The word gained a cachet and by the 1980s the “boutique hotel” was a thing, probably meaning something like “We are not the Hilton”.  That may be unfair and the classic boutique hotel was smaller, sometimes in some way quirky (such as being in a heritage building) and not necessarily cheaper than the major high-end chains.  The advertizing for boutique hotels often emphasized “individuality” rather than the “cookie-cutter” approach of the majors although the economics of running a hotel did conspire against things being too different and the standardization operations like Hilton or Hyatt offered around the world was a genuine attraction for many and not just the corporate clients.  Additionally, what the majors had done was raise the level of expectation and there was thus a baseline of similarity on which boutique players had to build.  Some successfully marketed the “difference” but structurally, there are more similarities than differences.  In the 1990s, the metaphorical sense was extended to just about anything in commerce which could be marketed as “specialized” although initially the most obvious differentiation was probably that the operations so dubbed tended to be “smaller and not part of a large multi-national”.  Thus appeared boutique law firms, boutique investment house, boutique wineries, boutique architects and such.

Boutique Hotel Donauwalzer, Hernalser Gürtel 27, 1170 Wien, Austria.

Although the use of the descriptor “boutique” didn’t become mainstream until the twenty-first century, “boutique” car manufacturers have existed since the early days of the industry and there have been literally hundreds (some of which didn’t last long enough to sell a single machine) and while a few endured to become major manufacturers or be absorbed by larger concerns, most fell victim either the economic vicissitudes which periodically cull those subsisting on discretionary expenditure or in more recent decades, the increasingly onerous web of laws and regulations which consigned to history the idea of "real" cars emerging from cottage industries.  Today, there are boutique operations and they tend to be either (1) parts-bin specialists which combine a bespoke body and interior fittings with components (engines, transmissions, suspension) from the majors or (2) those who modify existing vehicles (Ferraris & Porsches especially favored) with more power, bling or a combination of both.  Either way, the price tag can reach seven figures (in US$ terms).

The established high-end manufacturers noted the industry and although many had long offered customization services, the approach is now more institutionalized and exists as separate departments in separate buildings, there to cater to (almost) every whim of a billionaire (since the expansion of the money supply in the last quarter century they’re now a more numerous and still growing population).  The way the cost of a Porsche, Bentley or Ferrari can grow alarmingly from the list price (and these are not always the fiction some suggest) as the options & “personalizations” accumulate has attracted some wry comment but it’s not something new and the values are relative:  In the late 1960s, a Chevrolet Camaro might be advertized at around US$2800 but by the time the buyer had ticked the desired boxes on the option list, the invoice might read US$4400 or more.  Compared with that, adding US$55,000 in different paint, leather and wheels to a US$350.000 Ferrari starts to make LBJ era Detroit look like a bunch of horse thieves.

Monteverdi’s boutique Swiss concern

Peter Monteverdi (1934–1998 (and believed not in the lineage of Italian composer Claudio Monteverdi (1567–1643)) was a successful Swiss businessman and a less than successful race driver.  He was also one of the many disgruntled customers of Enzo Ferrari (1898-1988) and one of several inspired by the experience to produce cars to compete with those made by Il Commendatore.  For a decade between 1967-1976, his eponymous manufacturing concern (unique in Switzerland) produced over a thousand big, elegant (and genuinely fast) coupés, convertibles and sedans, all with the solidly reliable drive-train combination of Chrysler’s 440 cubic inch (7.2 litre) V8, coupled usually with the TorqueFlite automatic transmission and unlike some of the less ambitious boutique players in the era, Peter Monteverdi included engineering innovations such as the DeDion tube rear suspension (which had the advantage of keeping the rear wheels parallel in all circumstances, something desirable given the torque of the 440 and the tyre technology of the era).  In the post oil shock world of stagflation, it couldn’t go on and it didn’t, the last of the big machines leaving the factory in 1976 although Monteverdi did follow a discursive path until production finally ended in 1982; by then it was more (lawful) “chop shop” than boutique but those ten golden years did bequeath some memorable creations:

1970 Monteverdi Hai 450 SS.

The Lamborghini Miura (1966-1973) had fundamental flaws which progressively were ameliorated as production continued but the design meant some problems remained inherent.  People who drove it at high speed sometimes became acquainted with those idiosyncrasies but for those who just looked at the things forgave it because it was stunning achievement in aggression and beauty; it validated the notion of the mid- engined supercar.  Noting the Miura and the rumors of a similar machine from Ferrari (the prototype of which would be displayed at the 1971 Turin Auto Show and be released two years later as the 365 GT4 BB (Berlinetta Boxer the cover-story for the “BB” dsignation, the truth more exotic)), Peter Monteverdi built the Hai 450 SS (painted in a fetching “Purple Mist”) which created a sensation on the factory’s stand at the 1970 Geneva Motor Show.  “Hai” is German for “shark”; the muscular lines certainly recall the beasts  and the specification meant it lived up to the name.  Powered not by the 440 but instead Chrysler’s 426 cubic inch (7.0 litre) Street Hemi V8 (a version of their NASCAR racing engine tamed for street use) and using a ZF five-speed manual gearbox, the claimed top speed was a then impressive 180 mph (290 km/h), some 6-8 mph (10-13 km/h) faster than any Ferrari or Lamborghini and although the number seems never to have been verified, it was at least plausible.  Tantalizing though it was, although orders were received (the price in the UK was quoted at Stg£12,950, some 20% more than a Rolls-Royce Silver Shadow), series production was never contemplated and Peter Monteverdi was quoted explaining his reticence by saying “This car is so special you can’t deliver it to everybody.” So although over the years four were built (two with significant differences in mechanical specification) it was only the original prototype which ended up in private hands, the others retained by the factory (displayed at the Monteverdi museum in Binningen, Basel-Landschaft until it closed in 2016).  For trivia buffs, the Hai was the only car powered by a Street Hemi ever to have "factory-fitted" air-conditioning. 

1975 Monteverdi Palm Beach.

By 1975 it was obvious the writing was on the wall for the way things had been done in the era of US$2 a barrel oil but the Palm Beach, shown at that year’s Geneva Motor Show was a fine final fling.  The factory had had a convertible in the catalogue for years but the Palm Beach was different and rather than being a Monteverdi Berlinetta with roadster coachwork (as the appearance would suggest), it was based on the older High Speed 375 C platform with which the company had built its reputation.  It was thus the familiar combination of the 440 and TorqueFlite and the styling updates were an indication of how things would have progressed had events in the Middle East not conspired against it.  Although promotional material was prepared for the show and even a price was quoted (124,000 Swiss Francs), the Palm Beach remained an exquisite one-off.

Monteverdis in the last days of the big blocks: 375/4 (front), 375/L (centre) and Palm Beach (rear).

Others in the trans-Atlantic ecosystem offered four-door sedans including Facel Vega, Iso and De Tomaso but none offered a 7.2 litre big-block V8 or rendered it in such a dramatic low-slung package as the Monteverdi 375/4.  First shown at the 1971 Geneva Motor Show, production didn’t begin until the following year but the big machine made an impression on the press; big and heavy though it was, the aerodynamics must have been better than a first glance would suggest because testers who took it to Germany to run on the Autobahn (really its natural environment), found it would run to a genuine 144 mph, (232 km/h), out-pacing even the Mercedes-Benz 300 SEL 6.3 which had for some time reigned as the fastest four door (although the fastest of the Maserati Quattroportes might contest that).  Regular production of the 375/4 ended in 1973 although it remained available on special order with some demand from the Middle East (where the price of fuel was wasn’t much thought about when filling up) and it’s believed as many as 34 had been built when the last was delivered in 1975.  The last of them looked as good as the first although it wasn’t as fast, the later 440s detuned to meet US emission control rules although 120 mph (195 km/h) was still possible.

Hovel

Hovel (pronounced hov-ill)

(1) A small, very humble dwelling house; a wretched hut.

(2) Any dirty, disorganized dwelling.

(3) A roofed passage, a vent for smoke (thought likely related to the use in the kilns used to fire pottery).

(4) An open or semi-open shed, for sheltering cattle, storing tools or protecting produce, etc from the weather.

(5) To shelter or lodge (archaic).

(6) In the manufacture of porcelain, a large, conical brick structure around which the firing kilns are grouped.

(7) In the interior design of churches, a canopied niche for a statue or image.

Circa 1425: From the late Middle English hovel, hovel, hovel and hovylle.  The origin is contested, some sources suggesting it’s a diminutive of the Old English hof (an enclosure, court, dwelling, house, farmhouse), from the Proto-Germanic hufą (hill, farm), from the primitive Indo-European kewp (arch, bend, buckle), the construct being howf +‎ -el. It was said to be cognate with the Dutch hof (garden, court), the German Hof (yard, garden, court, palace) and the Icelandic hof (temple, hall) and related in Modern English to both hove and hover.  The noun hovelling (or hoveling) describes a method of securing a good draught in chimneys by covering the top, leaving openings in the sides, or by carrying up two of the sides higher than the other two.  Hovel is a noun and hovelled & hovelling are verbs; the noun plural is hovels. 

Although scholars seem to agree the Middle English hovel, hovel, hovel and hovylle emerged in the fifteenth century; some dismiss the link to the Old English hof, Oxford English Dictionary (OED) maintaining it's "etymologically and chronologically inadmissible" and that hovel is of unknown origin.  The meaning "shed for human habitation; rude or miserable cabin" wasn’t adopted until 1620; prior to that it was used only to describe structures used for animals, objects or as workspaces not used as domestic accommodation.  The specialised use, mostly in the interiors of churches and chapels, to mean "a canopied niche for a statue or image" is from the mid-fifteenth century but faded from use as architecture became increasingly professional and international; it was replaced by aedicule.  About the only thing on which all agree is the plural form is hovels.

Trait

Trait (pronounced treyt or trey (now rare))

(1) A distinguishing characteristic or quality distinguishing a particular person or thing, especially of one's personal nature.

(2) A pen or pencil stroke (emulated also in software).

(3) A stroke, touch, or strain, as of some quality (now rare).

(4) In biology (and later picked up in psychology), a genetically determined characteristic or condition which is some cases may be influenced by environmental factors.

(5) In programming, languages, those methods which can be used to instance or extend functionality to a class by using the class’s own interface.

1470–1480: From the French trait (line, stroke, feature, tract), from the Middle French trait (line, feature), from the Old French trait (a pulling (literally “something drawn”)), from the Latin tractus (drawing, drawing out, dragging, pulling (an later “line drawn; feature”), from trahō, from the past participle stem of trahere (to drag, pull, draw), ultimately from the primitive Indo-European treg- (to drag, pull) which may have been a variation of dreg (to pull, draw, drag”).  In the late fifteenth century the word was used in the sense of “shot, missiles; a projectile” while the meaning “a stroke in drawing, a short line” emerged in the 1580s, that form still in technical use in graphic art and some image editing software.  The earliest known record of trait being used in English to men “a particular feature or distinguishing quality” dates from 1752.  Like niche, the tradition pronunciation (trey) is now so rare that its use might be counter-productive because it likely only to mislead and the form treyt, once known only in North America, seems now universal.  Such an evolution should not be resisted because English has always worked this way although there will be snobs who cherish trey as a class-identifier however wrong-headed this may be.  Trait is a noun and trait-like is an adjective; the noun plural is traits.

In the biological sciences, a trait refers to any observable characteristic of an organism and that might be physical, physiological, or behavioral and can be something the result entirely of genetic inheritance or a combination of genetic and environmental factors.  Like niche (another word where the US pronunciation seems to have prevailed), trait was borrowed from biology by psychology where it describes enduring patterns of thought, feelings or behavior which tend to be relatively stable despite the influence of external factors but traits in psychology are acknowledged often to be affected by both genetic and environmental factors.  Crucially, the understanding in human psychology notes the significance of the relationship in trait development between external factors and an individual’s reaction to them.  For psychologists, the study of traits often focuses on individual differences and how they contribute to personality and behavior whereas in botany & zoology etc, it’s usually more about what can be generalized about species & sub-species.

The personality traits of some attract much attention.

So, while the essential concept of traits is common between biology and psychology, the focus and application differ. In biology, traits are studied to understand the characteristics of organisms and how they evolve while in psychology traits are studied to understand human personality and behavior.  In general use (and that includes pop-psychology), the word (often in the form “character trait”) is used as a synonym for characteristic, peculiarity, mark, attribute, property etc and is well-understood, nobody confusing a genetic trait (like hair color) with descriptions of behavioral proclivities.  The apparently strange use in computer programming does make sense even though it can be argued that in programming languages there’s really no such thing as genetics (except in the abstract although the simile is useful in things like the change-logs which document changes from version-to-version) and everything is environmental.  However, the idea does work because what it means is that aspects of the language which manifest as particular characteristics of the type will appear also in the function of the software produced, something most apparent when a functional change is obvious such as when object-oriented programming (OOP, which was an example of when the over-used term “paradigm change” was justified) began to become dominant in consumer-level application in the 1990s.

The Personality Inventory for DSM-5 (PID-5) is a 220 item self-rated personality trait assessment scale for adults.  The domains appear in the middle column, with contributed facets (green, left) and non-contributed facets (blue, right).

The notion of personality traits of course underlie much of the content of the American Psychiatric Association's (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) and the most notable codification of the approach to personality disorders appeared in the DSM-5 (2013).  Although there have been detail changes in the DSM-5-TR (2022), the structure has been maintained and the revisions were most concerned with ensuring the diagnostic criteria accommodated the not unusual situation of a patient meeting the criteria for a specific personality disorder frequently also satisfying those for other personality disorders.  The emphasis remains on personality disorders being characterized by impairments in personality functioning and pathological personality traits.  The specific personality disorder diagnoses that may be derived from this model include antisocial, avoidant, borderline, narcissistic, obsessive-compulsive, and schizotypal personality disorders but there’s also the diagnosis of “personality disorder—trait specified” (PD-TS) which can be made when a personality disorder is considered present but the criteria for a specific disorder cannot be met.

Homologate

Homologate (pronounced huh-mol-uh-geyt or hoh-mol-uh-geyt)

(1) To approve; confirm or ratify.

(2) To register (a specific model of machine (usually a car), engine or other component) in either general production or in the requisite number to make it eligible for racing competition(s).

(3) To approve or ratify a deed or contract, especially one found to be defective; to confirm a proceeding or other procedure (both mostly used in Scottish contract law).

1644: From the Latin homologāt (agreed) & homologātus, past participle of homologāre (to agree) from the Ancient Greek homologeîn (to agree to, to allow, confess) from homologos (agreeing), the construct being homo- (from the Ancient Greek ὁμός (homós) (same) + legein (to speak).  Homologate, homologated and homologating are verbs, homologation is a noun.

Once often used to mean “agree or confirm”, homologate is now a niche word, restricted almost wholly to compliance with minimum production numbers, set by the regulatory bodies of motorsport, to permit use in sanctioned competition; the words "accredit, affirm, approbate, authorize, certify, confirm, endorse, ratify, sanction, warrant & validate etc" are otherwise used for the purpose of agreeing or confirming.  It exists however still in Scottish law as a legal device, used (now rarely) retrospectively to declare valid an otherwise defective contract.  The best known application was to validate contracts of marriage where some technical defect in the legal solemnities had rendered the union void.  In such cases case a court could hold the marriage “. . . to be homologated by the subsequent marriage of the parties”.  It was a typically Scottish, common-sense application of the law, designed originally to avoid children being declared bastards (at a time which such a label attracted adverse consequences for all involved), vaguely analogous with a “contract by acquiescence” from contract law though not all were pleased: one dour Scottish bishop complained in 1715 that homologate was a "hard word".

Case studies in homologation

1962 Ferrari GTO.

In 1962, fearing the effectiveness of Jaguar’s new E-Type (XKE), the sleek lines of which made it look faster even than it was, Ferrari created a lighter, more powerful version of their 250 GT, naming the new car 250 GTO (Gran Turismo Omologato (Grand Touring Homologated)).  The regulatory body, the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) required a production run of at least 100 "identical" examples within twelve months for a car to be homologated for the Group 3 Grand Touring Car class but Ferrari built only 33, 36, 39 or 41 (depending on how one treats the variations and 36 is most quoted) 250 GTOs, thus the enduring debate about whether the thing violated the rules.

Ferrari GTO production numbers 1961-1964.

There was though some "wriggle room" in those rules in that "special coachwork" was permitted for racing variants of a homologated Group 3 model, but mechanical modifications were banned and while strengthening of a chassis, was permitted, weight reduction of the structure was not.  On any objective reading of the rule book, the fact the 250 GTO used a custom, narrow-tube frame unlike any other 250 GT, certification should have been denied until the requisite 100 had within twelve months been built.  However, the FIA was aware of the "Ferrari factor" in these matters.  Race organizers had much influence on the FIA's thought processes and they really wanted Ferraris on their grids because people paid money to see the things race so the GTO was granted homologation as a legitimate "development" the 250 GT Berlinetta SWB (Short wheelbase), the papers for which had been first issued in 1960.  It was as an appendage to this document that the GTO (as "a clause driving through a loophole" as one critic put it) competed between 1961-1964.  They’re now a prized item, one in a private transaction selling in 2018 for a reputed, then world-record, US$70 million which makes it the second most expensive car ever sold, topped only by the US$142 million paid in 2022 for one of the two Mercedes-Benz 300 SLR (W196S) Uhlenhaut gull-wing coupés.

1965 Ferrari 250 LM.

The FIA’s legislative largess didn’t extend to Ferrari’s next development for GT racing, the 250 LM. The view of il Commendatore was the 250 LM was an evolution as linked to the 250 GT’s 1960 homologation papers as had been the 250 GTO and thus deserved another certificate of extension.  Stung by the criticism that Ferrari were being afforded blatant favoritism (the FIA dubbed by some: "Ferrari International Assistance"), the FIA which pointed out 250 LM (1) was mid rather than front-engined, (2) had a wholly different body and (3) used a different frame and suspension.  Neither party budged so the 250 LM could run only in the prototype class until 1966 when it gained homologation as a Group 4 Sports Car.  Although less competitive against the true prototypes, it’s speed and reliability was enough for a private entry to win the 1965 24 Hours of Le Mans, a Ferrari’s last victory in the race until 2023.  One quirk of the 250 LM was that when the FIA ruled against homologation, the point of retaining the 3.0 litre displacement became irrelevant and almost all 250 LMs used a 3.3 litre engine so under Ferrari’s naming convention, the thing properly should have been called a 275 LM.  In February 2025, at RM Sotheby's Paris Auction, the Scaglietti-bodied 1964 250 LM which won at Le Mans in 1965 (and the only Ferrari from the era to compete in six 24 hour races) was sold for US$36.2 million.  The car had for decades been on display at Indianapolis Motor Speedway Museum, like the 1954 Mercedes-Benz W196R Stromlinienwagen (streamliner) which a few days earlier had fetched US$53 million.  

1969 Porsche 917.

In 1969, needing to build twenty-five 917s to be granted homologation, Porsche did... sort of.  When the FIA inspectors turned up to tick the boxes, they found the promised twenty-five cars but most were in pieces.  Despite assurances there existed more than enough parts to bolt together enough to qualify, the FIA, now less trusting, refused to sign off, despite Porsche pointing out that if they assembled them all, they'd then just have to take them apart to prepare them for the track.  The FIA conceded the point but still refused to sign-off.  Less than a month later, probably nobody at the FIA believed Porsche when they rang back saying twenty-five completed 917s were ready for inspection but the team dutifully re-visited the factory.  There they found the 25, lined-up in a row.  Duly the delegation granted homologation, declining the offer of twenty-five test-drives.

1969 Dodge Daytona (red) & 1970 Plymouth Road Runner Superbird (blue).

By the mid 1950s, various NASCAR (National Association for Stock Car Auto Racing) competitions had become wildly popular and the factories (sometimes in secret) provided support for the racers.  This had started modestly enough with the supply of parts and technical support but so tied up with prestige did success become that soon some manufacturers established racing departments and, officially and not, ran teams or provided so much financial support some effectively were factory operations.  NASCAR had begun as a "stock" car operation in the literal sense that the first cars used were "showroom stock" with only minimal modifications.  That didn't last long, cheating was soon rife and in the interests of spectacle (ie higher speeds), certain "performance enhancements" were permitted although the rules were always intended to maintain the original spirit of using cars which were "close" to what was in the showroom.  The cheating didn't stop although the teams became more adept in its practice.  One Dodge typified the way manufactures used the homologation rule to effectively game the system.  The homologation rules (having to build and sell a minimum number of a certain model in that specification) had been intended to restrict the use of cars to “volume production” models available to the general public but in 1956 Dodge did a special run of what it called the D-500 (an allusion to the number built to be “legal”).  Finding a loophole in the interpretation of the word “option” the D-500 appeared in the showrooms with a 260-hp V8 and crossed-flag “500” emblems on the hoods (bonnet) and trunk (boot) lids, the model’s Dodge’s high-performance offering for the season.  However there was also the D-500-1 (or DASH-1) option, which made the car essentially a race-ready vehicle and one available as a two-door sedan, hardtop or convertible (the different bodies to ensure eligibility in NASCAR’s various competitions).  The D-500-1 was thought to produce around 285 hp from its special twin-four-barrel-carbureted version of the 315 cubic inch (5.2 litre) but more significant was the inclusion of heavy-duty suspension and braking components.  It was a successful endeavour and triggered both an arms race between the manufacturers and the ongoing battle with the NASCAR regulators who did not wish to see their series transformed into something conested only by specialized racing cars which bore only a superficial resemblance to the “showroom stock”.  By the 2020s, it’s obvious NASCAR surrendered to the inevitable but for decades, the battle raged.

1970 Plymouth Superbird (left) and 1969 Dodge Daytona (right) by Stephen Barlow on DeviantArt.  Despite the visual similarities, the aerodynamic enhancements  differed between the two, the Plymouth's nose-cone less pointed, the rear wing higher and with a greater rake.  It's a persistent myth the wing height was dictated by the need to ensure the trunk (boot) lid could be opened; the height a product of the point at which "clean" air, undisturbed by the car's progress, could be found while the two vertical struts improved directional stability while inducing minimal drag.     

By 1969 the NASCAR  regulators had fine-tuned their rules restricting engine power and mandating a minimum weight so manufacturers resorted to the then less policed field of aerodynamics, ushering what came to be known as the aero-cars.  Dodge made some modifications to their Charger which smoothed the air-flow, labelling it the Charger 500 in a nod to the NASCAR homologation rules which demanded 500 identical models for eligibility.  However, unlike the quite modest modifications which proved so successful for Ford’s Torino Talladega and Mercury’s Cyclone Spoiler, the 500 remained aerodynamically inferior and production ceased after 392 were built.  Subsequently, Dodge "solved" the problem of the missing 108 needed for homologation purposes by later introducing a different "Charger 500" which was just a trim level and nothing to do with competition but, honor apparently satisfied on both sides, NASCAR turned the same blind eye they used when it became clear Ford probably had bent the rules a bit with the Talladega.  Not discouraged by the aerodynamic setback, Dodge recruited engineers from Chrysler's aerospace & missile division (which was being shuttered because the Richard Nixon (1913-1994; US president 1969-1974) was taking the US towards détente with the US & USSR beginning their arms-reduction programmes) and quickly created the Daytona, adding to the 500 a protruding nosecone and high wing at the rear.  Successful on the track, this time the required 500 really were built, 503 coming of the line.  NASCAR responded by again moving the goalposts, requiring manufacturers to build at least one example of each vehicle for each of their dealers before homologation would be granted, something which typically would demand a run well into four figures.  Plymouth duly complied and for 1970 about 2000 Superbirds (NASCAR acknowledging 1920 although Chrysler insists there were 1,935) were delivered to dealers, an expensive exercise given they were said to be invoiced at below cost.  Now more unhappy than ever, NASCAR lawyered-up and drafted rules rendering the aero-cars uncompetitive and their brief era ended.

1968 Dodge Charger (left), 1968 Dodge Charger 500 (centre) and 1969 Dodge Charger Daytona (right).

Before the missile engineers got involved, the path to specific aerodynamic efficiencies had an element of trial and error.  Ascetically, the 1968 Dodge Charger (left) was visually a great improvement on its slab-sided predecessor (1966-1968) and the recessed grill with hidden headlights was much admired, as were the buttresses which at the back created what Chrysler dubbed the "tunnel roof".  However, although always intended for the NASCAR ovals, once used there at speed, the drivers found the grill functioned just like the parachute the shape resembled, increasing fuel consumption and lowering top speed while the tunnel roof created buffering, causing instability.  Above 150 mph (240 km/h), the 1968 Charger not only didn't work very well but was dangerous.  That same year, the Charger 500 (centre) appeared with the recessed grill replaced by what was close to a flat surface which to some extent ameliorated the "parachute effect" but it was still not an ideal shape with which to penetrate the air while removing the buttresses smoothed things at the back which was good but at the now higher speeds, lift became a problem, something potentially more lethal even than the movement induced by the buffering.  The missile engineers' combination of the nosecone and big rear wing on the 1969 Dodge Daytona (right) solved all problems and on 24 March 1970, at Alabama's Talladega Superspeedway, a Charger 500 (DC-93) prepared by Chrysler Engineering to Daytona specifications (originally on the press fleet, it was a recovered stolen car!) set the then closed course lap record of 200.447 mph (322.5882 km/h).

Fully restored DC-93, the Dodge Charger 500 which in Daytona trim set the 200.447 mph (322.5882 km/h) at Talladega, March 1970.  The relationship between this thing and even the Daytonas sold to the public was an indication of how far NASCAR's definition of "stock car" had travelled since competition began in 1948.   

So extreme in appearance were the cars they proved at the time sometimes hard to sell and some were converted back to the standard specification by dealers anxious to get them out of the showroom.  Views changed over time and they're now much sought by collectors, the record price known price paid for a Superbird being US$1,650,000 for one of the 135 fitted with the 426 Street Hemi.  Despite the Superbirds having been produced in some four times the quantity of Daytonas, collectors indicate they're essentially interchangeable with the determinates of price (all else being equal) being determined by (1) engine specification (the Hemi-powered models the most desirable followed by the 6-BBL Plymouths (there were no Six-Pack Daytonas built) and then the 4 barrel 440s), (2) transmission (those with a manual gearbox attracting a premium) and (3) the combination of options, mileage, condition and originality.  Mapped on to that equation is the variable of who happens to be at an auction on any given day, something unpredictable.  That was demonstrated in August 2024 when a highly optioned Daytona in the most desirable configuration achieved US$3.36 million at Mecum’s auction at Monterey, California.  The price was impressive but what attracted the interest of the amateur sociologists was the same Daytona in May 2022 sold for US$1.3 million when offered by Mecum at their auction held at the Indiana State Fairgrounds.  The US$1.3 million was at the time the highest price then paid for a Hemi Daytona (of the 503 Daytonas built, only 70 were fitted with the Hemi and of those, only 22 had the four-speed manual) and the increase in value by some 250% was obviously the result of something other than the inflation rate.  The consensus was that although the internet had made just about all markets inherently global, local factors can still influence both the buyer profile and their behaviour, especially in the hothouse environment of a live auction.  Those who frequent California’s central coast between Los Angeles and San Francisco include a demographic not typically found in the mid-west and among other distinguishing characteristics there are more rich folk, able to spend US$3.36 million on a half-century old car they’ll probably never drive.  That’s how the collector market now works.  

1969 Ford Mustang Boss 429.

Although sometimes difficult, NASCAR could however be helpful, scratching the back of those who scratched theirs.  For the Torino and Mercury Cyclone race cars, Ford was allowed to homologate their Boss 429 engine in a Mustang, a model not used in top-flight stock car racing.  Actually, NASCAR had been more helpful still, acceding to Ford's request to nudge the seven litre displacement limit from 427 to 430 cubic inches, just to accommodate the Boss 429.  There was a nice symmetry to that because in 1964, Ford had been responsible for the imposition of the 427 limit, set after NASCAR became aware the company had taken a car fitted with a 483 cubic inch (7.9 litre) engine to the Bonneville salt flats and set a number of international speed records.  The car used on the salt flats was one which NASCAR had banned from its ovals after it was found blatantly in violation of homologation rules related to bodywork so there was unlikely to be much leeway offered there.

1971 Ford Falcon GTHO Phase III.

Australian manufacturers were (mostly) honest in their homologation programmes, Ford’s GTHO, Chrysler’s R/T Charger and Holden’s L34 and A9X were produced in accordance both with the claimed volumes and technical specification.  However, although in total the numbers added-up, they weren't always so punctilious in the form the parts ended up in the hands of customers.  Ford's RPO83 (Regular Production Option #83) was a run late in 1973 of XA Falcon GTswhich included many of the special parts intended for the aborted 1972 GTHO Phase IV and although, on paper, that seemed to make the things eligible for use in competition, it transpired the actual specification of various RPO83 cars wasn't consistent and didn't always match the nominal parts list.  History has been generous however and generally it's conceded that in aggregate, the parts subject to the homologation rules appear to have been produced in the requisite number.  By some accounts, this included counting the four-wheel disk brakes used on the luxury Landau hardtops but CAMS (the Confederation of Australian Motor Sport, at the time the regulatory body) was in the mood to be accommodating.

No homologation issues: Here and there, between 1938-2003, Volkswagen produced 21,529,464 Beetles (officially the VW Type 1).