Quadraphonic (pronounced kwod-ruh-fon-ik)
(1) Of, noting, or pertaining to the recording and reproduction of sound over four separate transmission or direct reproduction channels instead of the customary two of the stereo system.
(2) A quadraphonic recording.
(3) A class of enhanced stereophonic music equipment developed in the 1960s.
1969: An irregular formation of quadra, a variant (like quadru) from the older Latin form quadri- (four) + phonic from the Ancient Greek phonē (sound, voice). All the Latin forms were related quattor (four) from the primitive Indo-European kwetwer (four). Phonē was from the primitive Indo-European bha (to speak, tell, say) which was the source also of the Latin fari (to speak) and fama (talk, report). Phonic, as an adjective in the sense of “pertaining to sound; acoustics" was used in English as early as 1793. Those for whom linguistic hygiene is a thing approved not at all of quadraphonic because it was a hybrid built from Latin and Greek. They preferred either the generic surround sound which emerged later or the pure Latin lineage of quadrasonic (sonic from sonō (make a noise, sound)) which appeared as early as 1970 although it seems to have been invented as a marketing term rather than by disgruntled pedants. Quadraphonic, quadrasonic and surround sound all refer to essentially the same thing: the reproduction of front-to-back sound distribution in addition to side-to-side stereo. In live performances, this had been done for centuries and four-channel recording, though not mainstream, was by the 1950s, not uncommon. Quadraphonic is and adjective but had been used as a noun; the (equally irregular) noun plural is quadraphonics.
Surround sound
Quadraphonic
was an early attempt to mass-market surround sound. It used four sound channels with four
physical speakers intended to be positioned at the four corners of the
listening space and each channel could reproduce a signal, in whole or in part,
independent of the others. It was
briefly popular with manufacturers during the early 1970s, many of which
attempted to position it as the successor to stereo as the default standard but consumers were never convinced and quadraphonic
was a commercial failure, both because of technical issues and the multitude of
implementations and incompatibilities between systems; many manufacturers built
equipment to their own specifications and no standard was defined, a mistake
not repeated a generation later with the CD (compact disc). Nor was quadraphonic a bolt-on to existing equipment; it required new,
more expensive hardware.
Quadraphonic
audio reproduction from vinyl was patchy and manufacturers used different
systems to work around the problems but few were successful and the physical
wear of vinyl tended always to diminish the quality. Tape systems also existed, capable of playing
four or eight discrete channels and released in reel-to-reel and 8-track
cartridge formats, the former more robust but never suited to the needs of
mass-market consumers. The
rise of home theatre products in the late 1990s resurrected interest in
multi-channel audio, now called “surround sound” and most often implemented in
the six speaker 5.1 standard. Modern
electronics and the elimination of vinyl and tape as storage media allowed
engineers to solve the problems which beset quadraphonic but there remain
audiophiles who insist, under perfect conditions, quadraphonic remains the
superior form of audio transmission for the human ear.
Highway Hi-Fi record player in 1956 Dodge.
First commercially available in 1965, the eight-track cartridge format (which would later become the evil henchman of quadraphonic) convinced manufacturers it was the next big thing and they rushed to mass-production and one genuine reason for the appeal was that the 8-track cartridge was the first device which was practical for use as in-car entertainment. During the 1950s, the US car industry had offered the option of record players, neatly integrated into the dashboard and in the relatively compact space of a vehicle's interior, the sound quality could be surprisingly high. Although not obviously designed with acoustic properties optimized for music, the combination of parallel flat surfaces, a low ceiling and much soft, sound absorbing material did much to compensate for the small size and range offered by the speakers. However, although they worked well when sitting still in showroom or in certain vehicles, on the road things could be different. The records (the same size as the classic 7 inch (180 mm) 45 rpm "singles") played by means of a stylus (usually called "the needle") which physically traced the grooves etched into the plastic disks rotating at 16.66 rpm which, combined with an etching technique called "ultra micro-grooving" meant the some 45 minutes of music were available, a considerable advance on the 4-5 minutes of the standard single. The pressings were also thicker than other records, better to resist the high temperatures caused by heat-soak from the engine and the environment although, in places like Arizona, warping was soon reported. To keep the stylus in the track, the units were fitted with a shock-absorbing, spring enclosure and a counterweighted needle arm. Improbably, in testing, the system performed faultlessly even under the most adverse road conditions so the designers presented the product for corporate approval. At that point there was a delay because the designers worked for the Colombia Broadcasting Corporation (CBS) which had affiliations with thousands of radio stations all over the country and no wish to cannibalize their own markets; if people could play records in their cars, the huge income stream CBS gained from advertising would be threatened as drivers tuned out. The proposal was rejected.
Highway Hi-Fi record player in 1956 Plymouth.
Discouraged but not deterred, the engineers went to Detroit and demonstrated the players to Chrysler which had their test-drivers subject the test vehicles to pot-holes, railway tracks and rolling undulations. The players again performed faultlessly and Chrysler, always looking for some novelty, placed an order for 18,000, a lucrative lure which convinced even CBS to authorize production, their enthusiasm made all the greater by the proprietary format of the disks which meant CBS would be the exclusive source. So, late in 1956, Chrysler announced the option of "Highway Hi-Fi", a factory-installed record player mounted under the car's dashboard at a cost of (US$200 (some US$1750 in 2023 terms)). Highway Hi-Fi came with six disks, the content of which reflected the reactionary tastes of CBS executives and their desire to ensure people still got their popular music from radio stations but the market response was positive, Chrysler selling almost 4000 of the things in their first year, the early adopters adopting with their usual alacrity.
The second generation of players used standard 45 rpm singles: Austin A55 Farina (left) and George Harrison's (1943–2001) Jaguar E-Type S1 (right); all four Beatles had the players fitted in their cars and lead guitarist Harrison is pictured here stocking his 14-stack array. The lady on the left presumably listened to different music than the Beatle on the right (although their in-car hardware was identical) but tastes can't always be predicted according to stereotype; although he disapproved of most modern music, Rudolf Hess (1894–1987; Nazi deputy Führer 1933-1941) told the governor of Spandau prison (where he spent 40 of his 46 years in captivity) he enjoyed The Beatles because their tunes "were melodic".
At that point, problems surfaced. Tested exclusively in softly-sprung, luxury cars on CBS's and Chrysler's executive fleets, the Highway Hi-Fi had to some extent been isolated from the vicissitudes of the road but when fitted to cheaper models with nothing like the same degree of isolation, the styluses indeed jumped around and complaints flowed, something not helped by dealers and mechanics not being trained in their maintenance; even to audio shops the unique mechanism was a mystery. Word spread, sales collapsed and quietly the the option was withdrawn in 1957. The idea however didn't die and by the early 1960s, others had entered the field and solved most of the problems, disks now upside-down which made maintaining contact simpler and now standard 45 rpm records could be used, meaning unlimited content and the inherent limitation of the 4 minute playing time was overcome with the use of a 14-disk stacker, anticipating the approach taken with CDs three decades later. Chrysler tried again by the market was now wary and the option was again soon dropped.
1966 Ford Mustang with factory-fitted 8-track player.
Clearly though, there was demand for in-car entertainment, the content of which was not dictated by radio station programme directors and for many there were the additional attractions of not having to endure listening either to advertising or DJs, as inane then as now. It was obvious to all tape offered possibilities but although magnetic tape recorders had appeared as early as 1930s, they were bulky, fragile complicated and expensive, all factors which mitigated against their use as a consumer product fitted to a car. Attention was thus devoted to reducing size and complexity so the tape could be installed in a removable cartridge and by 1963, a consortium including, inter alia, Lear, RCA, Ford & Ampex had perfected 8-track tape which was small, simple, durable and able to store over an hour of music. Indeed, so good was the standard of reproduction that to take advantage of it, it had to be connected to high quality speakers with wiring just as good, something which limited the initial adoption to manufacturers such as Rolls-Royce and Cadillac or the more expensive ranges of others although Ford's supporting gesture late in 1965 of offering the option on all models was soon emulated. Economies of scale soon worked its usual wonders and the 8-track player became an industry standard, available even in cheaper models and as an after-market accessory, some speculating the format might replace LP records in the home.
Lindsay Lohan's A Little More Personal (Raw) as it would have appeared if released in the 8-Track format.
That never happened although the home units were widely available and by the late 1960s, the 8-track was a big seller for all purposes where portability was needed. It maintained this position until the early 1970s when, with remarkable suddenness, it was supplanted the the cassette, a design dating from 1962 which had been smaller and cheaper but also inferior in sound delivery and without the broad content offered by the 8-track supply system. That all changed by 1970 and from that point the 8-track was in decline, reduced to a niche by late in the decade, the CD in the 1980s the final nail in the coffin although it did for a while retain an allure, Jensen specifying an expensive Lear 8-track for the Interceptor SP in 1971, despite consumer reports at the time confirming cassettes were now a better choice. The market preferring the cheaper and conveniently smaller cassette
tapes meant warehouses were soon full of 8-track players and buyers were scarce. In Australia, GMH (General Motor Holden) by 1975 had nearly a thousand in the inventory which also bulged with 600-odd Monaro body-shells, neither of which were attracting customers.
Fortunately, GMH was well-acquainted with the concept of the "parts-bin special" whereby old,
unsaleable items are bundled together and sold at what appears a discount,
based for advertising purposes on a book-value retail price there’s no longer any chance of realizing.
1976 Holden HX LE
Thus
created was the high-priced, limited edition Holden LE (not badged as a Monaro although it so obviously looked like one that they've never been known as anything else), in "LE Red" (metallic crimson) with gold
pin-striping, Polycast "Honeycomb" wheels, fake (plastic) burl walnut trim, deep cut-pile (polyester) carpet and crushed velour (polyester) upholstery with plaid inserts over vinyl surrounds in matching shades; in
the 1970s, this was tasteful. Not exactly suited to the image of luxury were the front and rear spoilers but they too were sitting unloved in the warehouse so they became part of the package and, this being the 1970s, rear-seat occupants got their own cigar lighter, conveniently located above the central ashtray. Not
designed for the purpose, the eight-track cartridge player crudely was bolted to
the console but the audio quality was good and five-hundred and eighty LEs were made, GMH pleasantly surprised at how quickly they sold. When new, they listed at Aus$11,500, a
pleasingly profitable premium of some 35% above the unwanted vehicle on which it was
based. These days, examples are
advertised for sale for (Aus$) six-figure sums but those who now buy a LE do so for reasons other than specific-performance. Although of compact size (in US terms) and fitted with a 308 cubic inch (5.0 litre) V8, it could achieve barely 110 mph (175 km/h), acceleration was lethargic by earlier and (much) later standards yet fuel consumption was very high; slow and thirsty the price to be paid for the early implementations of the emission control devices bolted to engines designed during more toxic times.
1976 Holden HX LE Polycast "Honeycomb" wheel (14 x 7").
The Polycast process used a conventional steel wheel with a decorative face of molded polyurethane, attached with mechanical fasteners or bonded using adhesives (in some, both methods were applied) and although some snobs still call them "fake alloy" wheels, legitimately, they're a category of their own. Because the rubbery, molded plastic fulfilled no structural purpose, designers were able to create intricate shapes which would then have been too delicate or complex to render (at an acceptable cost) in any sort of metal. By consensus, some of the Ploycast wheels were among the best looking of the decade and, unstressed, they were strong, durable and long-lasting while the manufacturers liked them because the tooling and production costs were much lower than for aluminium or magnesium-alloy. Another benefit was, being purely decorative (essentially a permanently attached wheelcover), their use faced no regulatory barriers; US safety rules were even then strict and Citroën at the time didn't both seeking approval for the more exotic "resin" wheels
offered in Europe on the SM).
Aftermath of the pace car crash, Indianapolis 500, 29 May 1971; dozens were injured but there were no fatalities, despite impact with the well-populated camera stand being estimated at 60 mph (100 km/h).
The Holden LE's wheels came straight from the Pontiac parts bin in the US where they'd first appeared on the 1971 Firebird Trans-Am. The concept proved popular with manufacturers and a set of Motor Wheels' "Exiter" (14" x 7", part number 36830 and advertised also as "Exciter") was fitted to the Dodge Challenger Pace car which crashed during the 1971 Indianapolis 500. The crash was unrelated to the wheels, the driver (one of the Dodge dealers providing the pace car fleet) blaming the incident on somebody moving the traffic cone he'd used in practice as his pit-lane braking marker. Motor Wheel's advertising copy: “What wheel can survive this beating?” and “...the new wheel too tough for the 'mean machine'” predated the crash at Indianapolis and was intended to emphasise the strength of the method of construction.
Twenty years on, the “parts bin special” idea was a part of local story-telling. Although most doubt the tale, it's commonly recounted the 85 HSV VS GTS-R Commodores Holden built in 1996 were all finished in the same shade of yellow because of a cancelled order for that number of cars in "taxi spec", the Victorian government having mandated that color for the state's cabs. While a pleasing industry myth, most suspect it's one of those coincidences and the government's announcement came after the bodies for the GTS-R had already been painted. Being "taxi yellow" doesn't appear to have deterred demand and examples now sell for well into six figures (in Aus$).
1971 Holden HQ Monaro LS 350
The overwrought and bling-laden Holden LE typified the
tendency during the 1970s and of US manufacturers and their colonial off-shoots to take an elegant design and, with
a heavy-handed re-style, distort it into something ugly. A preview of the later “malaise
era” (so named in the US for many reasons), it was rare for a facelift to improve the original. The HQ Holden (1971-1974) was admired for an delicacy of line and fine detailing; what followed over three subsequent
generations lacked that restraint although to be fair, while the last of the series (HZ, 1977-1980) ascetically wasn't as pleasing as the first, dynamically, it was much-improved.
1973 Ford Falcon XA GT Hardtop (RPO83).
In the era of the LE, Ford Australia had it's own problem with unwanted two-door bodyshells. Released
too late to take advantage of what proved a market fad, Ford’s Falcon
Hardtops (XA; 1972-1973, XB; 1973-1976 & XC; 1976-1979) never enjoyed the
success of Holden’s Monaro (1968-1976), Chrysler’s Valiant Charger (1971-1978)
or even that of Ford’s own, earlier Falcon Hardtop (XM; 1964-1965 & XP;
1965-1966). The public’s increasing and unpredicted
uninterest in the style meant that by 1976, like Holden, Ford had languishing
in unwanted in their hands hundreds of body-shells for the big (in Australian
terms although in the US they would have been classed “compacts”) coupés. When released in 1972 Ford’s expectation was
it would every year sell more than 10,000 Hardtops but that proved wildly optimistic
and not even discounting and some “special editions” did much to stimulate
demand. By 1977 sales had dropped to a
depressing 913 and with over 500 bodies in stock, the projection no more than
100 would attract buyers meant a surplus of 400; an embarrassing mistake.
Edsel Ford II with Falcon Cobra #001, publicity shot, Ford Australia's Head Office, Campbellfield, Victoria. The badge below the Cobra decal reads 5.8; Australia switched to the metric system in 1973 but because of the nature of the machines, almost always the V8s are described either as 302 (4.9) or 351 (5.8), cubic inches being a muscle car motif.
Scrapping
them all had been discussed but in Australia at the time was Edsel Ford II (b
1948), great-grandson of Henry Ford (1863-1947), grandson of Edsel Ford (1893–1943)
and the only son of Henry Ford II (1917–1987).
The scion had been sent to southern outpost to learn the family business
and been appointed assistant managing director of Ford Australia; his solution profitably
to shift the surplus hardtops was hardly original but, like many sequels, it
worked. What Edsel Ford suggested was to
use the same approach which in 1976 had been such a success when applied in the
US to the Mustang II (1973-1978): Create a dress-up package with the motifs of
the original Shelby Mustangs (1965-1968), the most distinctive of which were
the pair of broad, blue stripes running the vehicle’s full length. In truth, the stripes had been merely an
option on the early Shelby Mustangs but so emblematic of the breed did they
become it’s now rare to see one un-striped.
The blinged-up Mustang IIs had been dubbed “Cobra II” and although
mechanically unchanged, proved very popular.
One (unverified) story which is part of industry folklore claims the
American’s suggestion was initially rejected by local management and discarded
before a letter arrived from Ford’s Detroit head office telling the colonials
that if Edsel Ford II wanted a Falcon Cobra with stripes, it must
be done. As Edsel's father once told a Lee Iacocca (1924–2019) who seemed to be getting ideas above his station: "Don't forget my name is on the building".
Falcon Cobra #31. The rear-facing bonnet (hood) scoop was the most obvious visual clue identifying the Option 97 (#002-031) cars although the after market responded and it became possible to buy replica scoops as well as the decals and plaques for those who wanted their own "Cobra look".
The
Australian cars thus came to be “Cobra” and as well as providing a path to
monetizing what had come to be seen as dead stock, the cars would also be a
platform with which Ford could homologate some parts for use in racing. The latter task was easy because in November 1977
Ford had built 13 “special order” XC Hardtops which conformed with the “evolution”
rules of the Confederation of Australian Motor Sport (CAMS, then the regulatory
body) for homologating parts for Group C touring car events. Cognizant of the furore which had erupted in
1972 when high-output engines were homologated in road cars, the changes were
mostly about durability and included enlarged rear wheel wells to accommodate wider
wheels and tyres, a reverse hood (bonnet) scoop which drew desirable cool-air from
the low-pressure area at the base of the windscreen, twin electric fans (switchable
from the cockpit) which replaced the power-sapping engine-driven fan, a front
tower brace (K-brace) which stiffened the body structure, an idler arm brace
and front and rear spoilers.
Falcon Cobra #094 which was one of the "fully optioned" of the Option 96 build (#081-200 including the 351 V8, air-conditioning, power steering & power windows).
A prototype
Falcon Cobra was built in April 1978 with production beginning the following
July. Unusually, all were originally painted
Bold Blue before the areas which would become the stripes and the sill &
wheel-arch highlights was masked with a coating of Sno White was painted over
the top (thin Olympic (Blaze) Blue accent stripes separated the colors and
“Cobra” decals were fitted to the sides and rear). Each of the 400 built was fitted with a sequentially
numbered plaque (001 to 400) on the dash and the production breakdown was:
#001:
Created for promotional use, it was allocated for the photo-sessions from which
came the images used in the first brochures (351 automatic).
#002-031: The
Option 97 run which contained the parts and modifications intended for
competition and produced in conformity with CAMS’s “evolution” rules (351
manual).
#032-041: 351
manual with air-conditioning (A/C) & power steering (P/S).
#042-080:
351 manual with A/C, P/S & power windows (P/W).
#081-200:
351 automatic with A/C, P/S & P/W.
#201-300:
302 manual.
#301-360
(except 351): 302 automatic with A/C & P/S.
#351: 351
manual.
#361-400:
302 automatic with A/C, P/S & P/W.
Moffat Ford Dealers team cars in the Hardie-Ferodo 1000 at Bathurst, finishing 1-2 in 1977 (left) and on the opening lap in 1978 (right). In 1978, the cars (actually 1976 XB models modified to resemble XCs) matched their 1977 qualifying pace by starting second & third on the grid but in the race both recorded a DNF (did not finish).
The Option
97 run (#002-031) included the modifications fitted to the 13 cars built in
November 1997 but also included was engine & transmission oil coolers, a tramp rod (fitted
only to the left-side because most racing in Australia is on anti-clockwise circuits
and most turns thus to the left) and a special front spoiler which directed cooling
air to the front brakes. Visually, the
Option 97 run was differentiated from the rest by the (functional) bonnet scoop
and a pair of Scheel front bucket seats (part number KBA90018) in black corduroy
cloth. Collectively, the 370 Option 96 and 30 Option 97 made up the 400 SVP (Special
Value Pack) that was the Falcon Cobra. The
Cobra’s blue & white livery appeared on the race tracks in 1978 but the
best known (the pair run by Allan Moffat's (v 1939) “Moffat Ford Dealers” team
were actually modified XB Hardtops built in 1976 and the same vehicles which
had completed the photogenic 1-2 at Bathurst in 1977.
