Punkess

Punkess (pronounced puhngk-es)

A feminine form of “punk”.

1976: The construct was punk + -ess.  The word was coined by fashion & pop culture writer Blair Sabol (b 1944) and appeared in the “Observations” column in the October 1976 edition of Vogue magazine.  Punkess is a noun; the noun plural is punkesses.

Vogue cover, October, 1976.

In coining “punkess”, Ms Sabol’s grammar was sound because appending the –ess suffix is the orthodox way to feminize a noun.  The -ess suffix was from the Middle English -esse, from the Old French -esse, from the Late Latin -issa, from the Ancient Greek -ισσα (-issa) and was appended to words to create the female form.   It displaced the Old English -en (feminine suffix of nouns).  The other often used suffix was–ette, from the Middle English -ette, a borrowing from the Old French -ette, from the Latin -itta, the feminine form of -ittus.  Properly applied, it was used to form nouns meaning a smaller form of something and thus related to –et, from the Middle English -et, from the Old French –et & its feminine variant -ette, from the Late Latin -ittus (and the other gender forms -itta & -ittum).  It was used to form diminutives, loosely construed.  Because of (1) the link with the Latin –itta (the feminine form of –ittus) and (2) the historic tendency to conflate diminutive forms (ie smaller, lesser, inferior) with “female”, the association of the use of the –ette suffix with feminized forms emerged and on some cases entered standard English (majorette (female drum major); usherette (female usher) et al).  The use became less common as gender-neutral language spread.

Vogue Observations (OB) page, October 1976.  In 1976, a pair of raw-hide, knee-high boots, hand-stitched in (just) post-Franco Spain, listed with a RRP (recommended retail price) of US$68 and for “darkening and waterproofing”, the purchase included a tin of ”Graza de Caballo (pig oil, goose grease, and essence of almond).”  Vogue remains an Oxford comma holdout.

So the grammar was (at least historically) sound but whether Ms Sabol’s choice was sociologically well-founded may to some have seemed dubious.  The word “punk” has enjoyed an extraordinary range of use since the seventeenth century and although its origin (in American English)  is murky, all uses thought forks of “punk” in the sense of “rotten wood dust used as tinder” (used thus since at least the late 1670s), evolving by the mid-nineteenth century to mean “something worthless”, personalized by 1910 to mean “an undesirable person (thus the link with petty criminals).  By 1976 however, what Ms Sabol (indirectly) was referencing was the “punk rock” movement which, musically, had actually been around for almost a decade but although the term “punk rock” had in the US appeared in the US pop-music press as early as 1972, it didn’t enter mainstream use until 1976-1977 when the industry (and there have been discussions about cause & effect) realized they had a marketable commodity to package.

An AI (artificial intelligence) generated female punk, who, were she IRL (in real life), might not have a Vogue subscription.

The punk persona of the 1976 punks was such that the female punk musicians stereotypically would have found the notion of “punkess” absurd; they were simply punks making their music.  Of course Ms Sabol was writing in Vogue, discussing not jarring music but the attitude of the women she called the harbingers of “punkess preakness”, those for whom “toughness and aloofness” was not “their trade, but rather feistiness and endurance”  In other words, punkness (for the Vogue readership) describes a kind of “selective attitudinal transference”.  It’s not correct to say critiques of language disparaging or dismissive of women didn’t exist in 1976, the point being that such objections tended then variously to be ignored or devalued, the critics marginalized but Ms Sabol’s crew of punkesses might have approved of the label; a generation earlier, there were those who would have called them “tough broads” so it may have seemed like progress.  Despite that, “punkess” never caught on although “punkette” was used by a number of publications, usually in the context of “young women who adopt the fashion aesthetic of the punk subculture”.

Punkess crooked Hillary Clinton iPhone 16 case by Harold Ninek.

“Punk” proved one of the more adaptable words in English, all traceable to the original sense of “something worthless”.  The re-purposing included (1) “pre World War I (1914-1918) bread of not the highest quality”, (2) “driftwood”, (3) “toxic or poor quality liquor”, (4) “a homosexual”, (5) within the homosexual community “a (usually weak, young) man kept by a man for sexual purposes”, (6) a “ineffectual or worn-out boxer”, (7) “insincerity” (which may have been an imperfect echoic of the slang “bunk”, (8) “Chinese insect repellent”, (9) “certain tobacco products”, (10) “some strains of cannabis”, (11) a “novice” at a trade (much used in the construction industry). (12) “a criminal” (historically much associated with petty crime and “juvenile delinquency”), (13) “decayed or rotted timber”, (14) “a foolish or absurd argument”, (15) a type of incense, (16) “a fungus (polyporus fomentarius etc) sometime dried for use as tinder”) (ie harking back to the seventeenth century original), (17) “a harlot or prostitute” (which gains linguistic respectability for having appeared in William Shakespeare’s (1564–1616) The Merry Wives of Windsor (1602): “This punk is one of Cupid’s carriers…” & Measure for Measure (1604): “She may be a punk, for many of them are neither maid, widow nor wife”, (18) “used or discarded fruits & vegetables”, (19) a 1970s pop-culture philosophy described as “hip nihilism”, (19) “a photographer’s assistant”, (20) a clipping of “punk rock” or “punk rocker”, (21) “the fashion styles associated with punk rockers and their audiences” (labeled “aggressively dumb” by some who didn’t approve), (22) in pyrotechnics, “a stick coated with a slow-burning paste, used to ignite fireworks, (23) “poverty and the poor”, (24) (as a verb) “to obtain” (often with a hint of the illicit), (25) (as verb) “to puncture a tyre” and (26) “a young elephant”.  Under the Raj, a punkah (or punka) was “a fan, especially made of leaf or cloth and hung from the ceiling”.  Punkah was from the Hindi पंखा (paṅkhā) (fan), from the Sanskrit पक्षक (pakṣaka), from पक्ष (pakṣa) (wing).  Before the advent of electricity a punkah remotely was operated manually by a servant, known as the “punkah-boy” or “punkahwallah” (depending on age).  Wallah was from Hindi -वाला (-vālā) either in the sense of “pertaining to” or (which etymologists think more likely) “man in charge”.

Celebration of Spring at St. Paedophilia’s—The Annual Running of the Altar Boys (2002) by Pat Oliphant.

Australian-born US political cartoonist Pat Oliphant (b 1935) used the device of a little penguin as his alter ego and that penguin’s name was “Punk”.  Punk often appeared in Oliphant’s cartoons, making some wry comment or asking a question.  One of the most controversial pieces appeared as “Celebration of Spring at St. Paedophilia’s—The Annual Running of the Altar Boys” in which Punk says: “I’ll call the bishop”, receiving the answer: “The bishop has first dibs.”  Widely condemned by the hierarchy of the US church, some newspapers refused to print the cartoon and others didn’t add it to their more widely-distributed on-line editions.  Oliphant’s cartoons are now held in the collection of the National Library of Congress.

Of cyberpunks and cybergoths

Punk has been used as a prefix to create literally dozens of forms and punkitude (the quality or state of being a punk; punkishness; adopting or projecting a punkish persona) captures the flavor of many, the construct being punk + att(itude).  Also existing in many forms, the suffix –punk seems first to have been used in 1986 to create cyberpunk and it spiked in 1992 with the coining of steampunk (although some sources claim this was first seen in 1989).  It’s used to apply the aesthetic or (perceived) attitudes of the 1970s (and beyond) punk subculture (loosely defined) on genres previously unrelated.

A cyberpunk Lindsay Lohan sipping martinis with Johnny Depp and a silver alien by AiJunkie.

The youth subcultures “cyberpunk” and “cybergoth” had common threads in the visual imagery of science fiction (SF) but differ in matters of fashion and political linkages.  Academic studies have suggested elements of cyberpunk can be traced to the dystopian Central & Eastern European fiction of the 1920s which arose in reaction to the industrial and mechanized nature of World War I but in its recognizably modern form it emerged as a literary genre in the 1980s, characterized by darkness, the effect heightened by the use of stark colors in futuristic, dystopian settings, the cultural theme being the mix of low-life with high-tech.  Although often there was much representation of violence and flashy weaponry, the consistent motifs were advanced technology, artificial intelligence and hacking, the message the evil of corporations and corrupt politicians exploiting technology to control society for their own purposes of profit and power.  Aesthetically, cyberpunk emphasized dark, gritty, urban environments where the dominant visual elements tended to be beyond the human scale, neon colors, strobe lighting and skyscrapers all tending to overwhelm people who often existed in an atmosphere of atonal, repetitive sound.

Cybergoth girls: The lasting legacy of the cybergoth's contribution to the goth aesthetic was designer colors, quite a change to the black & purple uniform.  Debate continues about whether they can be blamed for fluffy leg-warmers.

The cybergoth thing, dating apparently from 1988, thing was less political, focusing mostly on the look although a lifestyle (real and imagined) somewhat removed from mainstream society was implied.  It emerged in the late 1990s as a subculture within the goth scene, and was much influenced by the fashions popularized by cyberpunk and the video content associated with industrial music although unlike cyberpunk, there was never the overt connection with cybernetic themes.  Very much in a symbiotic relationship with Japanese youth culture, the cybergoth aesthetic built on the black & purple base of the classic goths with bright neon colors, industrial materials, and a mix of the futuristic and the industrial is the array of accessories which included props such as LED lights, goggles, gas masks, and synthetic hair extensions.  Unlike the cyberpunks who insisted usually on leather, the cybergoths embraced latex and plastics such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride), not to imitate the natural product but as an item while the hairstyles and makeup could be extravagantly elaborate.  Platform boots and clothing often adorned with spikes, studs and chains were common but tattoos, piercings and other body modifications were not an integral component although many who adopted those things also opted to include cybergoth elements. 

Although there was much visual overlap between the two, cyberpunk should be thought of as a dystopian literary and cinematic genre with an emphasis on high-tech while cybergoth was a goth subculture tied to certain variations in look and consumption of pop culture, notably the idea of the “industrial dance” which was an out-growth of the “gravers” (gothic ravers), movement, named as goths became a critical mass in the clubs built on industrial music.  While interest in cyberpunk remains strong, strengthened by the adaptability of generative AI to the creation of work in the area, the historic moment of cyberpunk as a force in pop culture has passed, the fate of many subcultures which have suffered the curse of popularity although history does suggest periodic revivals will happen and elements of the look will anyway endure.

Cybernetic

Cybernetic (pronounced sahy-ber-net-ik)

(1) Of or relating to cybernetics (the theoretical study of communication and control processes in biological, mechanical, and electronic systems, especially the comparison of these processes in biological and artificial systems).

(2) Of or relating to computers and the Internet (largely archaic (ie "so 1990s").

1948 (in English): From the Ancient Greek κυβερνητικός (kubernētikós) (good at steering, a good pilot (of a vessel)), from κυβερνητική τέχνη (kubernētikḗ tékhnē) (the pilot’s art), from κυβερνισμός (kubernismós) or κυβέρνησις (kubérnēsis) (steering, pilotage, guiding), from κυβερνάω (kubernáō) (to steer, to drive, to guide, to act as a pilot (and the ultimate source of the Modern English "govern").  Cybernetic & cybernetical are adjectives, cybernetics, cyberneticist & cybernetician are nouns and cybernetically is an adverb; the noun cybernetics is sometimes used as a plural but functions usually as a as singular (used with a singular verb)  

Although it's undocumented, etymologists suspect the first known instance of use in English in 1948 may have been based on the 1830s French cybernétique (the art of governing); that was in a paper by by US mathematician and philosopher Norbert Wiener (1894-1964) who was influenced by the cognate term "governor" (the name of an early control device proposed by Scottish physicist James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)), familiar in mechanical devices as a means of limiting (ie "governing") a machine's speed (either to a preferred rate or a determined maximum).  That was obviously somewhat different from the source in the original Greek kubernētēs (steersman) from kubernan (to steer, control) but the idea in both was linked by the notion of "control".  The French word cybernétique had been suggested by French physicist and mathematician André-Marie Ampère (1775-1836), (one of the founders of the science of electromagnetism and after whom is named the SI (International System of Units) unit of measurement of electric current, the ampere (amp)) to, describe the then non-existent study of the control of governments; it never caught on.  From cybernetics came the now ubiquitous back-formation cyber which has, and continues, to coin words, sometimes with some intellectual connection to the original, sometimes not: cybercafé, cybercurrency, cybergirlfriend, cybermania, cybertopia, cyberculture, cyberhack, cybermob, cybernate, cybernation, cyberpet, cyberphobia, cyberpunk, cybersecurity, cybersex, cyberspace, cyberfashion, cybergoth, cyberemo, cyberdelic et al.

Feedback

MIT Professor Norbert Wiener was an American mathematician and philosopher and one of the early thinkers developing the theory that the behaviour of all intelligent species was the result of feedback mechanisms that perhaps could be simulated by machines.  Now best remembered for the word cybernetics, his work remains among the foundations of artificial intelligence (AI).

The feedback loop at its most simple.

Cybernetics was an outgrowth of control theory, at the time something of a backwater in applied mathematics relevant to the control of physical processes and systems.  Although control theory had connections with classical studies in mathematics such as the calculus of variations and differential equations, it became a recognised field only in the late 1950s when the newly available power of big machine computers and databases were applied to problems in economics and engineering.  The results indicated the matters being studied manifested as variants of problems in differential equations and in the calculus of variations.  As the computer models improved, it was recognised the theoretical and industrial problems all had the same mathematical structure and control theory emerged.  The technological determinism induced by computing wasn’t new; the embryonic field had greatly been advanced by the machines of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.

Cybernetics can be represented as a simple model which is of most use when applied to complex systems.  Essentially, it’s a model in which a monitor compares what is happening with what should be happening, this feedback passed to a controller which accordingly adjusts the system’s behavior.  Wiener defined cybernetics as “the science of control and communications in the animal and machine”, something quite audacious at the time, aligning as it did the working of machines with animal and human physiology, particularly the intricacies of the nervous system and the implication the controller was the human brain and the monitor, vision from the eyes.  While the inherently mechanistic nature of the theory attracted critics, the utility was demonstrated by some success in the work of constructing artificial limbs that could be connected to signals from the brain.  The early theories underpinned much of the early work in artificial intelligence (AI).

Of cyberpunks and cybergoths

A cyberpunk Lindsay Lohan sipping martinis with Johnny Depp and a silver alien by AiJunkie.

The youth subcultures “cyberpunk” and “cybergoth” had common threads in the visual imagery of science fiction (SF) but differ in matters of fashion and political linkages.  Academic studies have suggested elements of cyberpunk can be traced to the dystopian Central & Eastern European fiction of the 1920s which arose in reaction to the industrial and mechanized nature of World War I (1914-1918) but in its recognizably modern form it emerged as a literary genre in the 1980s, characterized by darkness, the effect heightened by the use of stark colors in futuristic, dystopian settings, the cultural theme being the mix of low-life with high-tech.  Although often there was much representation of violence and flashy weaponry, the consistent motifs were advanced technology, artificial intelligence and hacking, the message the evil of corporations and corrupt politicians exploiting technology to control society for their own purposes of profit and power.  Aesthetically, cyberpunk emphasized dark, gritty, urban environments where the dominant visual elements tended to be beyond the human scale, neon colors, strobe lighting and skyscrapers all tending to overwhelm people who often existed in an atmosphere of atonal, repetitive sound.

Cybergoth girls: The lasting legacy of the cybergoth's contribution to the goth aesthetic was designer colors, quite a change to the black & purple uniform.  Debate continues about whether they can be blamed for fluffy leg-warmers.

The cybergoth thing, dating apparently from 1988, thing was less political, focusing mostly on the look although a lifestyle (real and imagined) somewhat removed from mainstream society was implied.  It emerged in the late 1990s as a subculture within the goth scene, and was much influenced by the fashions popularized by cyberpunk and the video content associated with industrial music although unlike cyberpunk, there was never the overt connection with cybernetic themes.  Very much in a symbiotic relationship with Japanese youth culture, the cybergoth aesthetic built on the black & purple base of the classic goths with bright neon colors, industrial materials, and a mix of the futuristic and the industrial is the array of accessories which included props such as LED lights, goggles, gas masks, and synthetic hair extensions.  Unlike the cyberpunks who insisted usually on leather, the cybergoths embraced latex and plastics such as PVC (polyvinyl chloride), not to imitate the natural product but as an item while the hairstyles and makeup could be extravagantly elaborate.  Platform boots and clothing often adorned with spikes, studs and chains were common but tattoos, piercings and other body modifications were not an integral component although many who adopted those things also opted to include cybergoth elements. 

Although there was much visual overlap between the two, cyberpunk should be thought of as a dystopian literary and cinematic genre with an emphasis on high-tech while cybergoth was a goth subculture tied to certain variations in look and consumption of pop culture, notably the idea of the “industrial dance” which was an out-growth of the “gravers” (Gothic Ravers), movement, named as goths became a critical mass in the clubs built on industrial music.  While interest in cyberpunk remains strong, strengthened by the adaptability of generative AI to the creation of work in the area, the historic moment of cyberpunk as a force in pop culture has passed, the fate of many subcultures which have suffered the curse of popularity although history does suggest periodic revivals will happen and elements of the look will anyway endure.

Limelight

Limelight (produced lahym-lahyt)

(1) In the lighting systems of live theatre, prior to the use of electricity, a lighting unit for spotlighting the front of the stage, producing illumination by means of a flame of mixed gases directed at a cylinder of lime and having a special lens for concentrating the light in a strong beam.

(2) The light produced by such a unit (and subsequently by lights using other technology.

(3) In theatre slang (1) a lighting unit (also clipped to “limes”), especially a spotlight & (2) by extension, attention, notice, a starring or central role, present fame (source of the general use of the word).

(4) The center of public attention, interest, observation, or notoriety.

1826:  The construct was lime + light.  Lime (in this context) was from the Middle English lyme, lym & lime, from the Old English līm, from the Proto-Germanic līmaz, from the primitive Indo-European sley- (smooth; slick; sticky; slimy).  It was cognate with the Saterland Frisian Liem (glue), the Dutch lijm, the German Leim (glue), the Danish lim (from the Old Norse lím) and the Latin limus (mud).  In chemistry, the word described any inorganic material containing calcium (usually calcium oxide (quicklime) or calcium hydroxide (slaked lime).  In literary or poetic use, it was used of any gluey or adhesive substance, usually in the sense of “something which traps or captures someone” and sometimes as a synonym for birdlime.  It was used as a verb to mean (1) to apply to some surface a coasting of calcium hydroxide or calcium oxide (lime) & (2) to smear with birdlime or apply limewash.

Light (in this context) was from the Middle English light, liht, leoht, lighte, lyght, & lyghte, from the Old English lēoht, from the Proto-West Germanic leuht, from the Proto-Germanic leuhtą, from the primitive Indo-European lewktom, from the root lewk- (light).  It was cognate with the Scots licht (light), the West Frisian ljocht (light), the Dutch licht (light), the Low German licht (light) and the German Licht (light) and related also to the Swedish ljus (light), the Icelandic ljós (light), the Latin lūx (light), the Russian луч (luč) (beam of light), the Armenian լույս (luys) (light), the Ancient Greek λευκός (leukós) (white) and the Persian رُخش‎ (roxš).  The early uses (in this context) all were related to the electromagnetic radiation in the spectrum visible to the human eye (ie what we still commonly call “light”).  Typically, the human eye can detect radiation in a wavelength range around 400 to 750 nanometers and as scientific understanding evolved, the shorter and longer (ultraviolet light and infrared light) wavelengths, although not visible, were also labeled “light” because, as a matter of physics, they are on the spectrum and whether or not they were visible to the naked eye was not relevant.  “Light” in the sense of illumination was literal but the word was also productive in figurative and idiomatic generation (the “Enlightenment”; “leading light”; “negative light”; “throw a little light on the problem”; “bring to light”; “light the way” et al).  Limelight is a noun & verb, limelighting is a verb, limelighted & limelit are adjectives and limelighter is a noun; the noun plural is limelights.

Lime (chemical formula: CaO) is composed primarily of calcium oxides and hydroxides (typically calcium oxide and/or calcium hydroxide) and the origin of the word lies in its early use as building mortar (because of its qualities of sticking or adhering).  It was the interaction of lime with other substances which lent the concrete mixed in Ancient Rome (known to engineers as “Roman concrete”) unique properties that made it remarkably durable and long-lasting (though despite the legend, it was no more “sticky” that other concrete using the same quantity of lime).  A critical ingredient in Roman concrete was a type of volcanic ash called pozzolana (abundant in the environs of Rome) which was mixed with lime and small rocks or rubble to create a paste that could be molded into various shapes and sizes.  What created uniqueness was the chemical reaction between pozzolana and lime when the mix was exposed to water, this creating a mineral called calcium silicate hydrate, the source of Roman concrete’s durability and strength.  Unusually, it was able to harden underwater and for centuries resist the effects of saltwater (indeed such exposure triggered a kind of “self repair reaction), making it ideal for building structures like harbors and aqueducts and in a happy coincidence, the easy accessibility of pozzolana meant Roman concrete could be produced at a lower cost than other building materials.

The term “limelight dress” was coined to describe a garment designed to attract the eye, making the wearing the “centre of attention” in the manner of a stage performer in the limelight: Rita Ora (left), Ariel Winter (centre) and Lindsay Lohan (right) illustrate the motif.  It's become something less easy to achieve because of the emergence in the past two decades of the "nude dress" and it may be that a more modest cut, if well executed, might work better for clickbait purposes, just because of the novelty.  Of late, “limelight” has also been used in mainstream fashion to refer to dresses made with neon-like fabrics which resemble a color under a bright light.

In the limelight: In a marquisette dress, Marilyn Monroe (1926–1962) sang happy birthday Mr President to President John Kennedy (JFK, 1917–1963; US president 1961-1963) at a Democratic Party fundraiser at New York's Madison Square Garden on 19 May 1962, ten days before his actual birthday.  Within three months, she would be dead.

Limelight was the common name for the Drummond light (or calcium light), a lamp of then unprecedented luminosity created by the burning of calcium oxide (lime).  The process of creating light by burning lime augment by oxygen & hydrogen had been invented in the early 1920s and, generating an intense white light, it was developed in 1925 for use in mining and surveying by Scottish army engineer Captain Thomas Drummond (1797-1840) and soon adopted for lighthouses although it became famous from the use in live theatre where directional spot-lights were used to illuminate the principal actors on stage and although the technology has moved on, in theatre, film & television production, catwalks etc, “limelight” is still often used to describe both the physical lighting equipment and the effect produced.  In popular entertainment, limelight came into use in the UK in the mid-1830s and, cheap to produce and easily exported, were soon in use around the world, even the military finding them useful, the army to assist the targeting of artillery (an early example of applying technology to fire-control systems) and the navy found they were vastly more effective than any other spotlight.  Limelights remained in widespread use until replaced by electric devices in the late nineteenth century but in some far-flung outposts of the British Empire, they were still in use even after World War II (1939-1945).

Lindsay Lohan (1) in the limelight, on stage with Duran Duran, Barclays Center in New York, April 2016 (left) and (2) in the glare, arriving at LA Superior Court, Los Angeles, February 2011 (right) during her "troubled Hollywood starlet" phase.  Although the glare doesn’t carry quite the cachet of the limelight, Ms Lohan illustrated how the catwalk was but a state of mind, pairing a white bandage dress (it’s not clear if wearing the color the Bible associates with purity influenced the judge but channelling the fashion choice of the 24 elders in Revelation 4:4 and the pope may have helped) with a pair of Chanel 5182 sunglasses.  Speculatively, it’s at least possible a strut under the limelight on the catwalk wouldn’t have had the same simulative commercial effect as the stroll to an arraignment, the the US$575 Glavis Albino dress from Kimberly Ovitz's (b 1983) pre-fall collection selling-out worldwide that very day.

From the idea of the character on stage being highlighted by the limelight came the figurative use of the phrase “in the limelight” (noted since 1877) to refer to anyone on whom attention is focused.  This begat the related phrases “steal the limelight”, “bask in the limelight” & “hog the limelight”, all from the world of theatre but later adopted as required just about anywhere (in sport, corporate life etc).  “In the limelight” tends to be used only positively; those who are the focus of attention for reasons such as being accused of committing crimes or some transgression which might lead to cancellation are usually said to be “in the glare”.

1970 Plymouth Hemi 'Cuda in Limelight (left) and 2023 Dodge Challenger SRT Hellcat Redeye Jailbreak in Sublime (right. 

Like the other manufacturers, Chrysler had some history in the coining of fanciful names for colors dating from the psychedelic era of the late 1960s when the choices included Plum Crazy, In-Violet, Tor Red, Limelight, Sub Lime, Sassy Grass, Panther Pink, Moulin Rouge, Top Banana, Lemon Twist & Citron Yella.  Although it may be an industry myth, the story told is that Plum Crazy & In-Violet (lurid shades of purple) were late additions because the killjoy board refused to sign-off on Statutory Grape.  Plymouth called their lime green Limelight while Dodge used Sub Lime.  The lurid shades so associated with the era vanished from the color charts in the mid-1970s, not because of changing tastes but in response to environmental & public health legislation which banned the use of lead in automotive paints; without the additive, production of the bright colours was prohibitively expensive.  Advances in chemistry meant that by the twenty-first century brightness could be achieved without the addition of lead so Dodge revived psychedelia for a new generation although Sub Lime became Sublime.  There was still a price to be paid however, Sublime, Red Octane, Sinamon Stick and Go Mango all costing an additional US$395 while the less vivid shades listed at US$95.

Neon

Neon (pronounced nee-on)

In chemistry, a rare, colorless, odorless gaseous element; an inert gas (the second in the noble group) occurring in trace amounts in the atmosphere.  It glows reddish orange when electricity passes through it, as in a tube in an electric neon light, hence the industrial use in illuminated signs & lights although it’s used also in refrigeration because of the helpfully low melting & boiling points.

(2) A neon lamp, tube or device, in the singular or collectively; made of or formed by a neon lamp or lamps.

(3) A sign or advertising display formed from (or emulating) neon lamps.

(4) Of, relating to, or characteristic of an urban area brightly lit during hours of darkness and often associated with popular forms of entertainment.

(5) As in the phrase “in neon”, or “in neon lights”, adding emphasis to something (sometimes used derisively).

(6) Any of a range of bright, lurid colors, used particularly in fashion (lipsticks, nail polish etc) and as hair color products.

(7) As neon tetra (Paracheirodon innesi), a freshwater fish of the characin family (family Characidae) of order Characiformes, native to the Amazon basin in South America.  Because of its vivid coloring and robustness, the neon tetra is one of the most popular tropical fish in home aquariums.

1898: From the Ancient Greek νέον (néon), neuter of νέος (néos) (new; young), from the earlier νέϝος (néwos), from the Proto-Hellenic newos, from the primitive Indo-European néwos.  From the same source, English (and other languages gained the prefix –neo which was often used to form clade or taxonomic names indicating more recent branching than a morphologically or otherwise similar group.  The prefix neo- was from the Ancient Greek prefix νεο- (neo-), from νέος (néos) (new, young).  In organic chemistry it (1) had the specific technical meaning “having a structure, similar to that of neopentane, in which each hydrogen atom of a methyl group has been replaced by an alkyl group” and (2) a newly-discovered or synthesized variant of an existing compound.  The synonyms (in the sense of something new) were ceno- & nov-, the less used antonym paleo-.  Many words have been prefixed with neo- and not exclusively to indicate something wholly novel but increasingly to describe a revival or new variation of something including (1) in architecture: neo-classical, neo-gothic etc, (2) in economics: neo-liberal, neo-Keynesian etc, (3) in politics: neo-Nazi, neo-conservative, neo-fascist etc and (4) in religion: neo-evangelicalism, neo-Hasidism etc.  In chemistry, the meaning is quite specific but in general use the synonyms include blazing, brilliant, glowing, lambent, luminous, radiant, shining, vivid, flashing, glitzy, glossy, razzle-dazzle, effulgent & gleaming.  Neon is a noun & adjective; the noun plural is neons.

Neon

Symbol: Ne.
Atomic number: 10.
Atomic weight: 20.1797.
Valency: 0.
Density: 0.899 90 kg/m³ / 0.9002 gm/liter at 0°C & 760 mm pressure.
Melting point: –248.59°C.
Boiling point: –246.08°C.

Neon nail-polish in 5-pack by Casey's Toys (part-number 52123) @ Aus$9.99.

Although in the United States it’s possible for citizens (in some cases children) lawfully to purchase military-grade firearms and some truly impressive ordinance, in other fields the government is punctilious in providing people protection.  In 2012, Douglas Schoon (b 1954), Creative Nail Design (CND)’s chief scientific advisor, explained that in the US, the manufacture of neon nail-polish was unlawful, although, in what seemed a quirk of the law, the products remain lawful to wear.  However, that apparent anomaly isn’t actually strange or unique to neon nail-polish and reflects a regulatory environment where the need is to certify the safety of both the components and the processes used in the manufacturing process.  There are no concerns about the safety of the finished product, the skin and nails anyway a most effective barrier and the nature and volume of fumes breathed in by consumers “doing their nails” substantively identical to that of other nail-polishes.

Coffin-shaped nails in neon-green.  These are actually "press-on nails".

Neon polishes are prohibited simply because the colorants have never been officially registered with the US Food & Drug Administration (FDA).  Mr Schoon explained that “…what determines whether a color is neon is the chemical composition, just as it is with blues and greens”, adding that that any manufacturer could submit neon shades to the FDA, but it’s a costly and time-consuming process which is why many of the lurid shades available in the US, technically, are not neons.  Registration is only the first step in securing FDA approval and few small-scale manufacturers have the resources to go through a process from which others would gain equal benefit.  Imported neon polishes appear on many shelves but it’s not known if unlawful, small-scale manufacturing is being undertaken somewhere in the US.

Actor Lindsay Lohan (b 1986, left) in neon clothing and singer-songwriter Billie Eilish (b 2001, right) with neon highlights.  Ms Eilish has since gone blonde, the result thought most pleasing.

As an adjective used of colors, neon refers to the quality of brightness rather than the red-orange colour which is the particular property of neon gas under electrical stimulation.  Thus, a “neon color” (or simply “neon”) is anything bright, lurid and used in clothing, accessories & enhancements (lipsticks, nail polish etc) or hair color products.

"Neon" displays in Piccadilly Square, London, 1967.

Neon was discovered in 1898 by British chemists Sir William Ramsay (1852–1916) and Morris Travers (1872–1961) while working in their London laboratory during a series of experiments which also uncovered krypton & xenon, the other two residual rare inert elements remaining in dry air after nitrogen, oxygen, argon and carbon dioxide are removed.  A gas colorless, odorless and inert monatomic gas in normal circumstances, it has about two-thirds the density of air and is noted for its emission in the spectrum of bright red when exposed to electrical current.  Although one of the known universe’s most common elements (fifth behind hydrogen, helium, oxygen and carbon), it’s rare on Earth, existing only in trace amounts in the atmosphere, attributable to it being highly volatile and thus never forming compounds which assume any solidity.

"Neon" displays in Tokyo, 2021.  The discovery (rewarded with a Nobel Prize) of the material which made possible the long-elusive blue liquid crystal displays (LEDs), coupled perhaps with changes in public taste may account for the some of the Tokyo "neonscape" darkening in the twenty-first century.

It needs thus to be extracted from air by an industrial process so is relatively expensive, its industrial uses limited to some specialized applications in refrigeration (by virtue of its low melting & boiling points) and the famous “neon lights” most associated with advertising and signage, the first of which was released in 1913, the term “neon sign” dating from 1927.  The distinctive bright red (tending to orange) light distinguished the first neon signs (created with curved neon-tubes) and in the narrow technical sense these are the only true “neon-lights” because tubes which generate other colors are made using either other noble gases or are instances of fluorescent lighting.  In hidden use, neon is also a component of various electrical devices including vacuum & wave tubes, current indicators and lightning arresters.

2015 Dodge Challenger SRT.  Literalists should note this is not what Greta Thunberg means when she speaks of "green vehicles".

Eponymous

Eponymous (pronounced uh-pon-uh-muhs)

(1) The giving of one's name to something.

(2) Of, relating to, or being the person or entity after which something or someone is named.

1833: The construct was eponym + -ous, from the Ancient Greek ἐπώνυμος (epṓnumos), the construct being ἐπί (epí) (upon) +‎ ὄνυμα (ónuma), a Doric and Aeolic variant of ὄνομα (ónoma) (name).  The word seems first to have been used in the second millennium BC, when, for several decades, the Assyrians named each year after a prominent government official, the alternative form eponymal appearing first in the record in reference to the other classical eponymos, a title of certain magistrates in ancient Greece who gave their names to the years when they held office, a practice later adopted by the English to record statute law.  In England, until 1953, the naming conventions for recording the bills parliament passed used regnal years; a statute gazetted in the seventh year of the reign of George V would have been dated 7 George V and were the system still in use, one passed in 2021 would be sealed 69 Elizabeth II.  Widely used in English (the Victorian age, the Nixon doctrine, the Menzies era etc), eponymic has been used in the sense "name-giving; pertaining to eponymic myths" as well as "of or pertaining to a classical eponymos."  The Greek epṓnymos was derived from onyma (name) the root also of a number of English words, including synonymous, pseudonym and anonymous.   Most dictionaries seem to list the comparative as "more eponymous" and the superlative as "most eponymous" although its difficult to imagine how the terms could be used, something either eponymous or not, unlike a word like "unique" where modifiers ("most unique"; "quite unique" (are now generally accepted (grudgingly by some) although all seem to draw the line at the clumsy "very unique".  Eponymous is an adjective and eponymously is an adverb.

Lohan Nightclub, Athens

Lohan Nightclub is Lindsay Lohan’s eponymous operation in Athens.  Actual ownership seems murky but at least at one point she was said to hold some equity.

Address:      Iera Odos 30-32, Athina, Greece
Telephone:  +30 698 750 1825
Website:      http://lohanathens.com
Facebook:    www.facebook.com/lohannightclub/
E-mail:        info@lohanathens.com

Located in the Kerameikos region of Athens and featuring what’s described as an industrial baroque aesthetic, Lohan Nightclub is described as the only Athenian mega-club.  Opening hours vary with the season and the lighting and sound systems said to be state of the clubbing art.  An entry ticket is €15 (US$15) and VIP tables are available, subject to a minimum spend of around €600 (US$700).  Lohan is said to be a destination for clubbing in its most extreme iteration and it’s suggested if one isn’t wholly committed to all that that implies, one won’t enjoy things.  The Lohan Nightclub’s material on various platforms notes an atmosphere of decadence promising “something decidedly different”, the greeting of bright pink flowers and neon lights promoting the escapist experience within, the overall impression, loud, hedonistic and Lohanic.

Lohan Night Club, Athens, opening night, 15 October 2016.