Quattroporte

Quattroporte (pronounced Quat-rah-port-eh)

(1) An Italian term (literally “four door”) for a berlina (a four-door sedan) (not with initial capital).

(2) A model name for a Maserati berlina, produced over six generations since 1963 (with initial capital).

1963: An Italian compound, the construct being quattro (four) + porte (door).  Quattro was from the Latin quattuor, from the Proto-Italic kettwōr, from the primitive Indo-European ketwṓr, neuter plural of ketwóres (cognates of which include the Sanskrit चतुर् (catur), the Old Armenian չորք (čʿorkʿ), the Ancient Greek τέσσαρες (téssares) and the Old English fēower (source of the Modern English four)).  Etymologists note the change of e to a is unexplained and under the usual conventions which evolved, the expected form would be “quettuor”.  Porte was from the Old French porte, from the Latin porta, from the primitive Indo-European root per- (to pass through), ultimate source also of the Modern English portal.

Everything said in Italian tends to sound better than anything said in English, regardless of the content Italian seems always to sound poetic and occasionally the Italians even improve upon themselves.  A (conventional three-box) four door car is in English a saloon or sedan which sounds OK but in Italian it’s the even more pleasing berlina.  Berlina was from the late nineteenth century French berline (an automobile with the front and rear compartments separated by a glass partition, as some limousines), from the seventeenth century German Berlin & Berline (a four-wheeled, horse-drawn carriage with a separate, enclosed compartment for two, noted for its lightness and durability and named after the city where it was designed).  However, pleasing to the ear though Berlina was, when in the early 1960s Maserati decided to enter the then quite novel (and barely contested) market segment that was the high-performance four-door sedan, they decided on a new name which, while etymologically merely descriptive, was the most pleasing “Quattroporte”.  To Italian ears it may have been nothing special but in the English-speaking world, one needed only to her the word to know it was attached to something exotic.

Six generations of the Maserati Quattroporte

First generation, Series 1, 1963-1966: 

Although it later gained the reputation, the early Maserati Quattroporte may not have been the world’s fastest four-door sedan but the 210 km/h (130 mph) of which it was capable was a match for the rare Lagonda Rapide and it could outrun the fastest of the Jaguar saloons.  Styled by Pietro Frua (1913-1983) who aimed to make a four-door version of the very expensive 5000GT which had been produced in a run of thirty-two bespoke creations after the interest generated by the original made for the Shah of Iran, the coachwork was actually built by Carrozzeria Vignale with a modern sheet metal structure atop box-section rails instead of Maserati’s traditional tubular frame.  Maserati were at the time in the throes of their final fling in Formula One and weren't out to create a Rolls-Royce.  The 4.2 litre (252 cubic inch) V8 engine, although derived from the unit used in the 5000GT, was detuned in the quest for a more refined experience although purposefully, its origins on the race track were never entirely disguised.  In the way things were done in the 1960s, seven of the first series cars were built with 4.7 litre (288 cubic inches) engines which yielded a top speed of 230 km/h (143 mph) and that did set the mark as the fastest four-door of the decade.

First generation, Series 2, 1966-1969:  

Although visually little changed on the outside, the second series cars underwent significant change.  The four round headlamps, previously reserved only for the US market in deference to their protectionist regulations, were now fitted as standard across the range and the interior was transformed into something more luxurious, a fully integrated climate control system included as standard equipment.  That attracted much favorable comment but one downgrade was the replacement of the very capable de Dion rear axle with a more agricultural rigid layout with semi-elliptic springs, a system Maserati used on other models.  Still the downgrade probably pleased most customers, the leaf-sprung rear much quieter that the chattering de Dion, the advantages of which few drivers of a car like the Quattroporte were likely to explore and it suited Maserati too, lowering the cost of production.  Most of the series 2 Quattroportes were fitted with the 4.2 litre engine but seven received the 4.7 and two, supplied to special order, received the 4.9 litre (301 cubic inch) unit from the Ghibli (1967-1973) sports car.

A four door Maserati coach-built by Carrozzeria Frua on commission from the Aga Khan, 1971.

There was a coda to the first generation.  In 1971, receiving a commission from the Aga Khan, Carrozzeria Frua had built a four-door sedan based on Maserati’s 2+2 coupé, the Indy (1969-1975).  Elegant and in the vein of the contemporary Iso Fidia, Maserati had Fura construct a production-ready prototype for what was intended to be the Quattroporte II but Citroën, after assuming ownership of Maserati instead insisted the new car be based on their top-of-the-range SM.  That didn’t end well but, given the events which were to unfold in the 1970s, there’s no guarantee that had the prototype reached production it would have long been successful, such indulgences rapidly rendered unfashionable by the first oil shock (1973).  However, built on the solid platform of the Indy, even if a commercial failure, it would have been a less costly one than the SM-based debacle proved.

Second generation, 1974-1978:

Beset by political, industrial and economic turmoil, the second generation aptly reflects the state of Italy in the mid-1970s.  Styled by Marcello Gandini (b 1938) at Carrozzeria Bertone, the Quattroporte II was developed while Maserati was owned by Citroën and was technically almost identical to the French machine which meant it was a 3.0 litre (181 cubic inch) 90° V6 with front wheel drive and hydro-pneumatic suspension.  It’s not entirely accurate to think of it as a four-door SM (eight of which were actually built by coachbuilder Henri Chapron including two which served for a time in the mews of the Élysée Palace as the presidential limousine) but the Italian variation certainly encapsulated all the virtues and vices of the original.  It was opulent and the hydro-pneumatic suspension guaranteed a superb ride but it was slower than its illustrious V8 predecessors, the added weight and some sacrifice in aerodynamic efficiency meaning performance was blunted compared even to the SM.  There had been plans to use a V8 but the old Maserati engine, its roots in 1950 sports car racing, was both too big to fit and in its last days, the modifications required to conform with upcoming legislation prohibitively difficult and expensive.  There had been plans to develop a V8 from the V6 and the prototypes built and tested in an SM proved satisfactory but the future of the company was uncertain and, after being sold in 1975, the project was cancelled.  On paper though, the V6 Quattroporte II survived the corporate re-structure, largely because so much of the tooling required for production had been built but such was the financial chaos in the era that funds were never allocated for the certification programmes required for it to be sold in major markets like the US, the UK and Europe so it languished until 1976 when it was made available, on special order, for markets where regulations were scant and, if affecting the rich, rarely enforced.  In the three years it was sold between 1976-1978, it attracted a dozen buyers, mostly in the Middle-East although two were reputedly shipped to Spain which, post-Franco but pre-EU, also had few regulations.  Tellingly, most models from Ferrari or Maserati with a run of only twelve are rare, collectable and expensive but the Quattroporte II is mostly unremembered, unlamented and, when offered for sale, sometimes unsold.

Third generation, 1979-1990:

Alejandro De Tomaso (1928-2003) who purchased Maserati from Citroën was an Argentine-born former race-car driver of Italian descent who had married well, enabling him to commence production of a number of flawed but compellingly attractive cars which combined performance with a low TCO (total cost of ownership) made possible by dipping into the mainstream parts bin.  He disapproved of front wheel drive, regarded hydraulic suspension as a good idea for a truck or bus and thought no good had ever come from the French being involved in the design of Italian cars.  The Quattroporte III was therefore based on De Tomaso’s 2+2 coupé, the Longchamp (1972-1989) which would also begat the Maserati Kyalami (1976-1983), all three cars on a platform which began life as the De Tomaso Deauville (1971-1985), something of an Italian take on the original Jaguar XJ6 (1968) though rendered with lines which anticipated Pininfarina's work on the Series 3 XJ (1979-1992).  The important point was that the Quattroporte was again configured with a V8 engine and rear wheel drive.  The body, designed by Giorgetto Giugiaro (b 1938), hasn’t aged as well as the early Quattroportes but that’s something which can be said of much which emerged from the 1970s and in the context of the time, it was an expression of current thinking and the marked responded, the car successful immediately from its debut in 1979.  In production until 1990, it was little changed over its run, only the Royale version with some minor restyling, upgraded interior appointments and a slight increase in the power from the 4.9 litre V8 was offered as a limited-edition variation to mark the marque’s sixtieth anniversary.

Fourth generation, 1994-2001:

Presented at the Turin Motor Show in April 1994, the Quattroporte IV was the first Maserati released since Fiat assumed ownership.  The new car was smaller than either its predecessors or successors and reflected Fiat’s interest in the lucrative premium end of the compact-executive market now defined by the BMW 3-series but in which neither the Fiat nor the corporate companion Lancia brand-name was likely to attract buyers.  Gandini’s design, recalling aspects of his earlier, spectacular, Maserati Shamal (1990-1996) was much admired and the lavish interiors, all wood and leather though in an Italian rather than an English manner, seduced many.  Offered variously with V6 and V8 engines between 2.0 (122 cubic inch) and 3.2 litres (196 cubic inch), performance was class-leading, 270 km/h (168 mph) the top speed of the most powerful.  It was certainly a different sort of sedan than was offered by Mercedes-Benz, a six-speed manual gearbox always standard equipment although in most markets, the optional automatic attracted most buyers.  The Quattroporte IV is notable too as the car which best reflects the improvements rendered when Fiat in 1997 passed control to Ferrari, the objective being to raise build quality and enhance reliability, then the greatest impediment to greater success.  The Quattroporte IV had from the start been praised for its dynamic qualities but the patchy reputation gained early hadn’t improved and it was this Ferrari sought to address and, there being little wrong with the basic design, focused on the production process and the quality control imposed on component supply.  The result was the much-improved Evoluzione model presented in 1998.

Fifth generation, 2003-2012:

Bigger than its predecessor, the Quattroporte V focused less on outright performance and returned Maserati to the upper premium segment, very much in the spirit of the first generation cars of 1963.  The Pininfarina-designed body was probably the most sensuously attractive four-door sedan since the Jaguar XJ6 in 1968 and, now underpinned by Ferrari’s engineering including 4.2 and 4.7 litre V8s and a robotized transaxle to optimize weight distribution, the dynamic qualities attracted praise, awards and commercial success soon following.  The popularity proved enduring, the fifth generation cars the biggest selling Quattroporte yet but feedback confirmed the only thing restricting appeal was the lack of a fully automatic gearbox, the Duoselect an ideal companion in a sports sedan but there were many who adored the slinky style but wanted something more effortless.  Accordingly, the automatic version was displayed at the 2007 Detroit Motor Show, the US clearly expected to be the biggest market which it proved to be.  More than 15,000 had been produced by 2008 when a re-styled version was released including variations on the Quattroporte S and Quattroporte Sport GT S although, in a sign of the times, the restyled models were available only with an automatic six-speed transmission only, the Duoselect option discontinued.

Sixth generation, 2013-:

In another sign of the time, the sixth generation Quattroporte was actually offered with a diesel engine, albeit one which could still allow the car to reach 250 km/h (155 mph) but for those who remembered the way things used to be done, the most powerful of the traditional petrol-powered models, the Quattroporte Trofeo, now with a twin-turbocharged 3.8 litre (232 cubic inch) V8 rated at 572 horsepower, could attain 326 km/h (203 mph), faster than any Maserati Grand Prix car had ever travelled.  The new body-shape was obviously an evolution of the fifth generation and was well-executed but, lacking the languid look and the originality of the earlier car, it attracted less comment and was thought essentially derivative.  Another innovation was the all-wheel-drive (AWD) system offered on some of the V6s but the most profitable was said to be the Zegna Limited Edition, one-hundred of which were made in 2015.  Based on the GTS, it was mechanically unchanged but, trimmed in collaboration with Italian fashion house Ermenegildo Zegna in a manner which might be expressed as “the acceptable face of bling”, the exterior details including a platinum-metallic silk paint scheme with aluminum pigments, the twenty-inch wheels color-coordinated.  Inside, the seats, panels, roof lining and sun visors were covered variously in silk, leather in a shade exclusive to the model or a woolen herringbone.

Hofit Golan and Lindsay Lohan attending  Summer Tour Maserati in Porto Cervo, Sardinia, July 2016.  The Quattroporte is a 1964 Series I.

The fastest four-door sedan of the 1960s

1958 Chrysler New Yorker with 392 Hemi.

The straight-eight Dusenbergs had in the 1930s set the standard but by the late 1950s, powerful engines in four-door sedans had again become a thing and in 1958, Chrysler’s 392 cubic inch (6.4 litre) Hemi V8, used in the two-door 300s, could be fitted to the four-door New Yorker and was standard on the Imperial line.  Rated at 345 horsepower (chronic unreliability meant the fuel-injected Electrojector option which promised 390 hp proved abortive) and contemporary reports suggest 130 mph was possible.  The Hemi however was discontinued after 1958, its 413 cubic inch (6.8 litre) wedge-headed successor proving displacement was a cheaper path to power.  However, seeking success on the track, Chrysler resumed production of a hemi-headed V8 in 1964.  Now 426 cubic inches (7.0 litres), it was intended only for the track and not the general public, an attitude which displeased the sanctioning body for the competition in which it was used; deciding to ban the thing, NASCAR claimed the use of a custom race engine in what was called a “stock car” series was hardly in the spirit of the rules.  Actually, the cars hadn’t for many years been close to “stock” but NASCAR ignored that argument and banned the Hemi anyway.

1966 Dodge Coronet Sedan with 426 Street Hemi.  Dodge’s butterfly-shaped tail-lamps are also a footnote in legal history, being a matter of dispute in the legal proceedings pursuant to the infamous 1966 triple-murder in which the defendants were the boxers Rubin "Hurricane" Carter (1937–2014) & John Artis (1946-2021).

 Chrysler’s reaction was to detune the Hemi (a little), quieten it (a lot) and, as the “426 Street Hemi” offer it in 1966 as an option in the road cars.  That way, as long as enough were sold, it would become a “stock” engine and eligible for competition and to ensure enough were sold, the Street Hemi was made available in a wide range of vehicles and while Chrysler didn’t sell as many (of what was a very expensive option) as expected, they moved enough to satisfy the rules.  In 1966, most went into big two-door coupes (and a few convertibles) but five buyers ordered them in four-door sedans and these, Chrysler duly built, two reputedly special orders for the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) although some doubt has been cast on that.  All were fitted with the robust 727 Torqueflite automatic transmissions, a final-drive ratio of 3.23 and a front anti-roll bar, the build otherwise distinguished mostly by heavy-duty components, many from the station-wagon which was rated for towing heavy loads.

Powerful in the spirit of the Maserati Quattroporte but with few concessions to luxury, like all the Street Hemi-powered cars there was no air-conditioning but the five 1966 sedans were more basic still, lacking power-steering, power brakes and power windows and Chrysler also sold Hemi-powered cars to the public with four-wheel drum brakes which, given the weight of the things and the performance on tap, was about as bad an idea as it sounds.  Chrysler never published any performance claims for the Hemi-powered sedans but automobile-catalog.com’s ProfessCars™ estimation of the top speed of a two door with a manual transmission was 147 mph (236 km/h), impressive in 1966 especially given that on the same gearing the ET for the standing ¼ mile was 13.5 seconds which does demonstrate the advantages of using a genuine racing engine as the base.  Contemporary reports confirm the efficient TorqueFlite barely affected things, the two and four door Coronets were of similar weight, the frontal area the same and although experience suggests the upright rear window of the sedan may have induced more performance-sapping drag than the flatter line on the coupe, it seems likely the 1966 Hemi sedans were capable of more than 140 mph (225 km/h) and may have matched the 4.7 litre Quattroportes sold that year.  With only five of the former and seven of the latter being produced, they can barely be considered production cars but technically, both qualify.  Interestingly, Chrysler that year did offer a 2.73 final drive ratio which, if fitted, would have pushed the (theoretical) top speed towards 160 mph (257 km/h), a velocity which might have required enough concentration from the driver to divert thought from those drum brakes.

1965 Mercedes-Benz 600 (SWB).

Mercedes-Benz had high hopes for the 600 (W100) Grosser (1963-1981), introduced at the Frankfurt Motor Show in 1963.  The true successor to the 770K Grosser (W07: 1930-1938 & W150: 1939-1943), the projections were at least a thousand would find buyers annually but by 1966, it seemed clear this was too optimistic, the 345 sold in 1965 apparently the high point rather than the encouraging start hoped.  It was clear the trend was downward and worse, an unexpected on-rush of legislation would soon banish the 600 from sale in the United States, always by far the biggest potential market.  That rarity in automotive production, the almost all-new vehicle (only the automatic transmission and a few suspension components were modifications of earlier designs), the 600’s development programme had been long and expensive and all indications were the W100 ledger would continue to be written in red ink.  What was needed was a way to amortize the investment and the most obvious way, increasing sales of the 600, was clearly impossible.

Thus the 300SEL 6.3.  The legend has always been that famous engineer Erich Waxenberger (1931-2017), requisitioned one of the 6.3 litre V8s (M100) developed for and then exclusive to the 600 and fitted it to a 300 SE (W112) coupé which had failed quality control checks and was scheduled for destruction.  According to Herr Waxenberger, he dreamed up the combination because he was annoyed by the press suggesting the model range had become staid after the retirement of the 300 SL (W198) roadster.  Doubling the size of the engine in a 300 SE certainly made for something more exciting and the board, apparently impressed, authorized production on the proviso the long-wheelbase four-door 300 SEL (W109) be used instead of the rather lovely coupé, a 6.3 litre sedan thought to have the greater sales appeal.  So it proved, 6523 6.3s were sold between 1968-1972 and all at a very high price, a lucrative operation which, when combined with the 7380 M100 powered (W116) 450 SEL 6.9s shifted between 1975-1981, may well have covered any losses sustained in the 18-odd years (1963-1981) it took to sell 2677 600s (all reputedly at a loss).

1971 Mercedes-Benz 300SEL 6.3.

The tale of a nostalgic engineer secretly building a hotrod which the board liked so much they went on to build thousands is a good one but what Herr Waxenberger never mentioned were the prior discussions within the corporation about the disappointing sales of the 600 and the desirably of finding some way to amortize the cost of the programme.  The obvious solution was to find a way profitability to share some of the unique components used on the 600 with other, better selling vehicles and obviously, the 600’s V8 was a major component so putting it in a car which would, at a high price, sell in much greater numbers was obviously a good idea.  The factory has a bit of previous in myth-making, for years circulating the story of how mechanics were in 1934 forced to work overnight scraping the traditional white paint from the W25 Grand Prix car because scrutineers had found it a solitary kilogram over the newly introduced 750 KG limit.  It wasn’t until decades later that researchers checked the rules for that race (the 1934 Eifelrennen) and discovered the 750 KG formula didn’t that day apply to the “unlimited” class in which the W25 had been entered.  Their appetite whetted, digging deeper they found photographs of the cars arriving at the circuit in the bare aluminum skins in which they raced and of the many photographs of the event which survive, never does a W25 appear in anything but bare metal.  Still, it’s a good story and the factory’s website now tacitly acknowledges the dubious relationship with the truth by referring to it as a “legend”.  That seems a reasonable view and it is such a good story it deserves to endure.  The story of the birth of 6.3 may too be a little murky.  Everything Herr Waxenberger said was true and things surely happened just as he recounted but the truth was perhaps incomplete, his motives perhaps a little more practical than the lust to build a gentleman’s hot rod.

It certainly was a hotrod though, an air-suspended, 6.3 litre howler from a time when BMWs were not yet three litres, Jaguar’s XJ12 was half a decade away and it was for years an autobahn favorite which could outrun the 4.2 litre Quattroportes but couldn’t quite match the 4.7 litre cars in top speed, rated by the factory at 220 km/h (137 mph), a figure confirmed by some contemporary tests.  Aerodynamics rather than available power seemed to be the issue, the later, heavier (and actually slightly less powerful) 450SEL 6.9, although the factory claimed that only 225 km/h (140 mph) possible, achieving 240 Km/h (149 mph) when tested by those with enough road to let it wind out.

1963 Lagonda Rapide.

It’s thus a contested space but, all things considered, the 4.7 Quattroportes probably do deserve to be thought the fastest four door sedans of the 1960s, even if they never managed some of the extraordinary speeds claimed in some corners of the internet.  The other contenders from the era either couldn’t touch 225 km/h (140 mph) or came too late.  The Lagonda Rapide (1961-1964) and Iso Fidia (1967-1975) both could exceed 210 km/h (130 mph) but not by much and the Jaguar Mark X & 420G (1961-1970) not even that, the earlier 3.8 Mark II (1959-1968) managing 202 km/h (126 mph).  The Australian Ford Falcon GTHO (1969-1972) did top 225 km/h (140 mph) but not until 1971, the 1969 edition about 10 mph slower.  The De Tomaso Deauville (1971-1985) and Monteverdi’s High Speed 375/4 (1971-1976) came later, the early versions Swiss 375/4 (with the most powerful (and toxic) of the 440 cubic inch (7.2 litre) Chrysler V8s it would use) truly impressive and able to reach 232 km/h (144 mph) attentive drivers reputedly able at that velocity to be amused by the discernible leftward movement of the fuel gauge.

Before, during & after.  A 2009 (fifth generation) Quattroporte leased by Lindsay Lohan's father was damaged in minor traffic accident while her assistant was at the wheel, Los Angeles, 2009.

Decapitate

Decapitate (pronounced dih-kap-i-teyt)

(1) To cut off the head; to behead.

(2) Figuratively, to oust or destroy the leadership or ruling body of a government, military formation, criminal organization etc.

1605–1615: From the fourteenth century French décapiter, from the Late Latin dēcapitātus, past participle of dēcapitāre, the construct being dē- + capit- (stem of caput (head), genitive capitis), from the Proto-Italic kaput, from the Proto-Indo-European káput- (head) + -ātus.  The Latin prefix dē- (off) was from the preposition dē (of, from); the Old English æf- was a similar prefix.  The Latin suffix -ātus was from the Proto-Italic -ātos, from the primitive Indo-European -ehtos.  It’s regarded as a "pseudo-participle" and perhaps related to –tus although though similar formations in other Indo-European languages indicate it was distinct from it already in early Indo-European times.  It was cognate with the Proto-Slavic –atъ and the Proto-Germanic -ōdaz (the English form being -ed (having).  The feminine form was –āta, the neuter –ātum and it was used to form adjectives from nouns indicating the possession of a thing or a quality.  The English suffix -ate was a word-forming element used in forming nouns from Latin words ending in -ātus, -āta, & -ātum (such as estate, primate & senate).  Those that came to English via French often began with -at, but an -e was added in the fifteenth century or later to indicate the long vowel.  It can also mark adjectives formed from Latin perfect passive participle suffixes of first conjugation verbs -ātus, -āta, & -ātum (such as desolate, moderate & separate).  Again, often they were adopted in Middle English with an –at suffix, the -e appended after circa 1400; a doublet of –ee.  Decapitate, decapitated & decapitating are verbs, decapitation & decapitator are nouns.

As a military strategy, the idea of decapitation is as old as warfare and based on the effective “cut the head off the snake”.  The technique of decapitation is to identify the leadership (command and control) of whatever structure or formation is hostile and focus available resources on that target.  Once the leadership has been eliminated, the effectiveness of the rest of the structure should be reduced and the idea is applied also in cyber warfare although in that field, target identification can be more difficult.  The military’s decapitation strategy is used by many included law enforcement bodies and can to some extent be applied in just about any form of interaction which involves conflicting interests.

The common English synonym is behead and that word may seem strange because it means “to take off the head” where the English word bejewel means “to put on the jewels”.  It’s because of the strange and shifting prefix be-.  Behead is from the Middle English beheden, bihefden & biheveden, from the Old English behēafdian (to behead).  The prefix be- however evolved from its use in Old English.  In modern use it’s from the Middle English be- & bi-, from the Old English be- (off, away), from the Proto-Germanic bi- (be-), from the Proto-Germanic bi (near, by), the ultimate root the primitive Indo-European hepi (at, near) and cognate be- in the Saterland Frisian, the West Frisian, the Dutch, the German & Low German and the Swedish.  When the ancestors of behead were formed, the prefix be- was appended to create the sense of “off; away” but over the centuries it’s also invested the meanings “around; about” (eg bestir), “about, regarding, concerning” (eg bemoan), “on, upon, at, to, in contact with something” (eg behold), “as an intensifier” (eg besotted), “forming verbs derived from nouns or adjectives, usually with the sense of "to make, become, or cause to be" (eg befriend) & "adorned with something" (eg bejewel)).

A less common synonym is decollate, from the Latin decollare (to behead) and there’s also the curious adjective decapitable which (literally “able or fit to be decapitated”) presumably is entirely synonymous with “someone whose head has not been cut off” though not actually with someone alive, some corpses during the French Revolution being carted off to be guillotined, the symbolism of the seemingly superfluous apparently welcomed by the mob.

1971 Citroën DS21 Décapotable Usine.

Just as pleasing though less bloody were the special Citroëns crafted by French coachbuilder Henri Chapron (1886-1978) between 1958-1974, the most numerous of which were the 1325 Citroën ID & DS décapotable usines (a "factory convertible", described sometimes as Cabriolets Usines or Cabriolets d'Usine, the significance of usine (factory) being the valuable sales feature of the Citroën corporate warranty) built between 1960-1971.  In 1958, three years after the DS had been released, Chapron completed his first two-door décapotable (the La Croisette) which, with a companion coupé (Le Dandy), was presented at that year’s Paris Motor Show.  The public reaction was positive but, bespoke creations, they were expensive although sufficient demand existed for Chapron to begin small-scale manufacturing.

1963 Citroën Le Dandy & 1964 Citroën Palm Beach by Chapron.

Demand was however higher at a lower price-point, Citroën's dealers reporting many enquiries about a décapotable and the factory thus contracted with Chapron to design one based on the DS, using as many standard components as possible; it was this which became the décapotable usine which, introduced in 1960, remained on the list until 1971.  They were notably less expensive than Chapron’s originals which, with varied and more intricate coachwork, were built to special order between 1958-1974 under the model names La Croisette, Le Paris, Le Caddy, Le Dandy, Concorde, Palm Beach, Le Léman, Majesty, & Lorraine; all together, 287 of these were delivered and reputedly, no two were exactly alike.

1972 Citroën SM (left) & 1971 Citroën SM Mylord by Chapron (right).

The wheels are the Michelin RR (roues en résine or résine renforcée (reinforced resin)) composites, cast using a patented technology invented by NASA for the original moon buggy.  The Michelin wheel was one-piece and barely a third the weight of the equivalent steel wheel but the idea never caught on, doubts existing about their long-term durability and susceptibility to extreme heat (the SM had inboard brakes).

1968 Citroën DS state limousine by Chapron (left) and 1972 Citroën SM Présidentielle (right).

In the summer of 1971, after years of slowing sales, Citroën announced the end of the décapotable usine and Chapron’s business model suffered, the market for specialized coach-building, in decline since the 1940s, now all but evaporated.  Chapron developed a convertible version of Citroën’s new SM called the Mylord but, very expensive, it was little more successful than the car on which it was based; although engineered to Chapron’s high standard, fewer than ten were built.  Government contracts did for a while seem to offer hope.  Charles De Gaulle (1890–1970; President of France 1958-1969) had been aghast at the notion the state car of France might be bought from Germany or the US (it’s not known which idea he thought most appalling and apparently nobody bothered to suggest buying British) so, at his instigation, Chapron (apparently without great enthusiasm) built a long wheelbase DS Presidential model.  Begun in 1965, the project took three years, legend having it that de Gaulle himself stipulated little more than it be longer than the stretched Lincoln Continentals then used by the White House and this was achieved, despite the requirement the turning circle had to be tight enough to enter the Elysée Palace’s courtyard from the rue du Faubourg Saint-Honoré and then pull up at the steps in a single maneuver.  Delivered just in time for the troubles of 1968, the slinky lines were much admired in the Élysée and in 1972, Chapron was given a contract to supply two really big four-door convertible (Le Presidentielle) SMs as the state limousines for Le Général’s successor, Georges Pompidou (1911–1974; President of France 1969-1974).  First used for 1972 state visit of Queen Elizabeth II (b 1926; Queen of UK since 1952), they remained in regular service until the inauguration of Jacques Chirac (1932–2019; President of France 1995-2007) in 1995, seen again on the Champs Elysees in 2004 during Her Majesty’s three-day state visit marking the centenary of the Entente Cordiale.

1972 Citroën SM Opera by Chapron (left) & 1973 Maserati Quattroporte II (right).

However, state contracts for the odd limousine, while lucrative, were not a model to sustain a coach building business and a year after the Mylord was first displayed, Chapron inverted his traditional practice and developed from a coupé, a four-door SM called the Opera.  On a longer wheelbase, stylistically it was well executed but was heavy and both performance and fuel consumption suffered, the additional bulk also meaning some agility was lost.  Citroën was never much devoted to the project because they had in the works what was essentially their own take on a four-door SM, sold as the Maserati Quattroporte II (the Italian house having earlier been absorbed) but as things transpired in those difficult years, neither proved a success, only eight Operas and a scarcely more impressive thirteen Quattroporte IIs ever built.  The French machine deserved more, the Italian knock-off, probably not.  In 1974, Citroën entered bankruptcy, dragged down in part by the debacle which the ambitious SM had proved to be although there had been other debacles worse still.   Four years later, Henri Chapron died in Paris, his much down-sized company lingering on for some years under the direction of his industrious widow, the bulk of its work now customizing Citroën CXs.  Operations ceased in 1985 but the legacy is much admired and the décapotables remain a favorite of collectors and film-makers searching for something with which to evoke the verisimilitude of 1960s France.

Judith and the decapitation of Holofernes

In the Bible, the deuterocanonical books (literally “belonging to the second canon”) are those books and passages traditionally regarded as the canonical texts of the Old Testament, some of which long pre-date Christianity, some composed during the “century of overlap” before the separation between the Christian church and Judaism became institutionalized.  As the Hebrew canon evolved, the seven deuterocanonical books were excluded and on this basis were not included in the Protestant Old Testament, those denominations regarding them as apocrypha and they’re been characterized as such since.  Canonical or not, the relationship of the texts to the New Testament has long interested biblical scholars, none denying that links exist but there’s wide difference in interpretation, some finding (admittedly while giving the definition of "allusion" wide latitude) a continuity of thread, others only fragmentary references and even then, some paraphrasing is dismissed as having merely a literary rather than historical or theological purpose.

Le Retour de Judith à Béthulie (The Return of Judith to Bethulia) (1470) by Botticelli, (circa 1444-1510).

The Book of Judith exists thus in the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Old Testaments but is assigned (relegated some of the hard-liners might say) by Protestants to the apocrypha.  It is the tale of Judith (יְהוּדִית in the Hebrew and the feminine of Judah), a legendarily beautiful Jewish widow who uses her charms to lure the Assyrian General Holofernes to his gruesome death (decapitated by her own hand) so her people may be saved.  As a text, the Book of Judith is interesting in that it’s a genuine literary innovation, a lengthy and structured thematic narrative evolving from the one idea, something different from the old episodic tradition of loosely linked stories.  That certainly reflects the influence of Hellenistic literary techniques and the Book of Judith may be thought a precursor of the historical novel: A framework of certain agreed facts upon a known geography on which an emblematic protagonist (Judith the feminine form of the national hero Judah) performs.  The atmosphere of crisis and undercurrent of belligerence lends the work a modern feel while theologically, it’s used to teach the importance of fidelity to the Lord and His commandments, a trust in God and how one must always be combative in defending His word.  It’s not a work of history, something made clear in the first paragraph; this is a parable.

Judit decapitando a Holofernes (Judith Beheading Holofernes) (circa 1600) by Caravaggio (Michelangelo Merisi da Caravaggio, 1571–1610).

The facts of the climactic moment in the decapitation of General Holofernes are not in dispute, Judith at the appropriate moment drawing the general’s own sword, beheading him as he lay recumbent, passed out from too much drink.  Deed done, the assassin dropped the separated head in a leather basket and stole away.  The dramatic tale for centuries has attracted painters and sculptors, the most famous works created during the high Renaissance and Baroque periods and artists have tended to depict either Judith acting alone or in the company of her aged maid, a difference incidental to the murder but of some significance in the interpretation of preceding events.

Judit si presenta a Holofernes (Judith Presenting Herself to Holofernes) (circa 1724) by Antonio Gionima (1697–1732).

All agree the picturesque widow was able to gain access to the tent of Holofernes because of the general’s carnal desires but in the early centuries of Christianity, there’s little hint that Judith resorted to the role of seductress, only that she lured him to temptation, plied him with drink and struck.  The sexualization of the moment came later and little less controversial was the unavoidable juxtaposition of the masculine aggression of the blade-wielding killer with her feminine charms.  Given the premise of the tale and its moral imperative, the combination can hardly be avoided but it was for centuries disturbing to (male) theologians and priests, rarely at ease with bolshie women.  It was during the high Renaissance that artists began to vest Judith with an assertive sexuality (“from Mary to Eve” in the words of one critic), her features becoming blatantly beautiful, the clothing more revealing.  The Judith of the Renaissance and the Baroque appears one more likely to surrender her chastity to the cause where once she would have relied on guile and wine.

Judith (1928) by Franz von Stuck (1863–1928).

It was in the Baroque period that the representations more explicitly made possible the mixing of sex and violence in the minds of viewers, a combination that across media platforms remains today as popular as ever.  For centuries “Judith beheading Holofernes” was one of the set pieces of Western Art and there were those who explored the idea with references to David & Goliath (another example of the apparently weak decapitating the strong) or alluding to Salome, showing Judith or her maid carrying off the head in a basket.  The inventiveness proved not merely artistic because, in the wake of the ruptures caused by the emergent Protestant heresies, in the counter-attack by the Counter-Reformation, the parable was re-imagined in commissions issued by the Holy See, Judith’s blade defeating not only Assyrian oppression but all unbelievers, heretical Protestants just the most recently vanquished.  Twentieth century artists too have used Judith as a platform, predictably perhaps sometimes to show her as the nemesis of toxic masculinity and some have obviously enjoyed the idea of an almost depraved sexuality but there have been some quite accomplished versions.

Lindsay Lohan gardening with a lopper, decapitation a less demanding path to destruction than deracination, New York City, May 2015.  She appears to be relishing the task.