Galaxy (pronounced gal-uhk-see)
(1) In astronomy, a large system of stars,
galactic dust, black holes etc, held together by mutual gravitation and
isolated from similar systems by vast regions of space. They exist (in at least the billions) as
independent and coherent systems although because not static, can collide and
merge. Planet Earth is in a galaxy
called the Milky Way.
(2) Figuratively, an assemblage of things
or persons seen as luminous or brilliant.
(3) To gather together into a luminous
whole (archaic).
(4) In mathematics, a hyper-real number in
non-standard analysis
(5) In fashion or graphic design, any print
or pattern reminiscent of a galaxy, constructed usually by blending semi-opaque
patches of vibrant color on a dark background.
(6) The Milky Way, the apparent band of
concentrated stars which appears in the night sky over earth (now long obsolete
and used only in historic reference).
1350–1400: From the Middle English galaxyë, galaxie & galaxias
from the Old French galaxie and
Medieval Latin galaxia & galaxias (the Milky Way; in the classical
Latin via lactea or circulus lacteus), from the Ancient
Greek γαλαξίας (galaxías kyklos)
(milky circle) from γάλα (gala
(genitive galaktos)) (milk) and
related to the Latin lac (milk)),
from the primitive Indo-European g(a)lag
(milk). Galaxy is a noun and verb, the
adjective is galactic the noun plural galaxies; the present participle is
galaxying and the past participle galaxied.) The technical astronomical sense as it’s
now understood as a discrete stellar aggregate including the sun and all
visible stars emerged as a theory by 1848, the final scientific proof being
delivered in the 1920s; the figurative sense of "brilliant assembly of
persons or articles" dates from the 1580s.
It will all end badly
The Milky Way, planet Earth’s cosmic suburb
was in the late fourteenth century defined as "the galaxy as seen in the
night sky", and was a loan-translation of Latin via lacteal which had
existed formerly in the Middle English as milky
Wey, Milken-Way & Milky Cercle. The philosophers (natural scientists) of antiquity
had speculated on the nature of what they could see when gazing at night sky
and some (Democrates, Pythagoras (and even the historian Ovid)) guessed they
were looking at a vast array of stars, the matter when Galileo, using his
telescope, reported that the whole vista was resolvable into stars and it
attracted other names including Jacob's Ladder, the Way to St James's, and
Watling Street.
Artist's impression of the Milky Way
generated by the Chinese Academy of Sciences, 2019.
The Milky Way was originally
thought the entire universe but as telescopes improved astronomers by the mid
nineteenth century speculated that some of the spiral nebulae they observed were
actually vast and immensely distant structures perhaps similar in size and
shape to the Milky Way but the proof of that wasn’t definitive until the 1920s. Galaxies are held together by the
gravitational attraction of the material within them, most coalescing around a
nucleus into elliptical or spiral forms although a few are irregular in
shape. Galaxies range in diameter from
hundreds to hundreds of thousands of light-years and contain between a few
million and several trillion stars, many grouped into clusters, with these
often parts of larger super-clusters.
German philosopher Immanuel Kant
(1724–1804) was among the first to theorize the Milky Way was not the only
galaxy in the universe and coined the term “island universe to describe a
galaxy”. Kant was right and while
estimates vary, over one hundred-billion galaxies exist in the observable
universe, most of which are moving away from our Milky Way; those farther away
receding faster than those nearby. The
Milky Way rotates at about 560,000 mph (900,000 km/h) and completes a full
revolution about every two-hundred million years, thus one galactic revolution
ago, dinosaurs roamed the Earth. In
about four billion years, the Milky Way will begin a slow-motion (in
astronomical terms) collision with the Andromeda galaxy, a process which will
take at least one hundred million years.
Optimistically, astronomers have suggested the ellipsoidal result be
named Milkomeda.
Notable Ford Galaxies, 1959-1970
Initially to augment their range-topping
Fairlane, Ford adopted the Galaxie name in 1959 as a marketing ploy to take
advantage of public interest in the space race, using the French spelling to
add a touch of the exotic. On the
full-sized platform, the name was used until 1974 but it was the brief era of
the charismatic high-performance versions built in the early-mid 1960s which are most remembered; already a force on US circuits, they became also in England, Australia, South Africa & New Zealand,
one of the more improbably successful racing cars. The Galaxie was notable also as the platform which
Ford used to create the LTD, essentially a Galaxie bundled with a number of
otherwise optional features and some additional appointments, sold at an
attractive price. It was an immediate
success and had two side effects, (1) other manufacturers soon used the same
tactic, creating most notably the Chevrolet Caprice and (2) the creation of "a luxury Ford" began the process of rendering the Mercury brand, introduced in 1938 as
"the luxury Ford", eventually redundant.
In an evolution which would play-out over two decades, the interior fittings
of the Ford LTD and its competitors would become increasingly ornate although
critics were sometimes divided on the aesthetic success of the result. A generation after the name was retired in
the US, Ford in Europe used the anglicized spelling, in 1995 introducing the
Galaxy, a dreary family van.
1959 Ford Galaxie Skyliner.
The Galaxie was
a mid-year addition to the line, assuming the role of the top-of-the-range
model from the Fairlane 500, a position it would occupy until 1965 when it
began to be usurped by the LTD, added that year as a Galaxie option although it
would later become a separate model which would outlast the Galaxie by more than a
decade. Best remembered from the 1959
range was the Skyliner, a two-door convertible with the novelty of a
retractable hard-top a marvel of analogue-era engineering, the operation of the
all-steel apparatus a mesmerizing piece of mechanical choreography from the
early space-age, controlled by three drive motors, ten solenoids, many relays
& circuit breakers, all connected with a reputed 610 feet (186 m) of electrical
cabling. Despite the intricacy, it proved a reliable system.
1960 Ford Galaxie Starliner.
As the 1960s dawned, the muscle car
thing was still years away, the intermediate and pony-cars on which they would
be based not yet in production and by choice, Ford probably wouldn’t have produced
any high performance versions of the Galaxie.
For some time, Detroit had been putting more powerful versions of their
biggest engines into their top-line models but these tended to be early interpretations
of what would later come to be known as the “personal car”, heavyweight coupés
laden with power accessories, air conditioning and luxury fittings but those big engines were increasingly and
extensively being modified by those seeking competitive advantage in what rapidly
had become the wildly popular racing series run by the National Association for
Stock Car Auto Racing (NASCAR). With some alarm, the sanctioning body, concerned both at the
extent to which the cars being used differed from their “stock car” concept and
the high speeds being attained, imposed rules designed to restrict the use of
components used on the track to those genuinely available to customers. Thus was born the 352 cubic inch (5.8 litre) (FE)
“Special” V8, a US$204.70 option available on all 1960 Fords except the wagons
although, reflecting the intended market, niceties like air conditioning, power
steering and power brakes weren’t available.
Rated at 360 (268 kW) horsepower, the 352 Special actually out-powered the
430 cubic inch (7.0 litre) (MEL) V8, which, at 350 horsepower (261 kW),
was available in the Thunderbird but was so bulky and heavy that its use
on the track had been curtailed although it would enjoy some success in powerboat
racing. The 352 Special also provided
quite a jump in performance from other 352s which offered a (standard) 235 horsepower (175 kW) or 300 (224 kW) in the 352 Super, neither exactly sparkling
performers although typical for the era; a Special-equipped Galaxie managing a standing quarter-mile five
seconds quicker than a Super, admittedly one hampered by one of Ford’s early,
inefficient automatic transmissions. The
352 Super wasn’t available for long but the streamlined Starliner body to which
most of them were fitted proved to have aerodynamic properties close to idea
for use on NASCAR’s ovals but public enthusiasm for the style soon waned and it
was replaced by something thought more elegant but which proved less slippery,
inducing Ford to try (unsuccessfully) one of the more blatant cheats of the era
and one which would prove to be the first shot in what came to be called the “aero-wars”.
1961 Ford Galaxie.
The power-race had for a
while been raging on the ovals but NASCAR’s rules dictating all the bits be
available for public sale and produced in sufficient number to make purchase genuinely
possible meant the race moved to the showroom and thus, public roads, something
which produced a remarkable generation of cars but which would have implications
for the public, the industry and, ominously, the laws which would follow. Facing competition with more power and
displacement, Ford in 1961 released a version of the new 390 cubic inch (FE) (6.5
litre) this time with an induction system which used three two-barrel
carburetors rather than the single four barrel which had sat atop the 352
Special. Strangely, most owners had to go
a circuitous route to get their six-barrel 390, few assembled that way by the
factory, the cars instead delivered equipped with a high-performance version of
the 390 which included in the trunk (boot), a kit with the parts and
accessories to upgrade from the supplied single four barrel carburetor to a triple,
two barrel apparatus. Intended for
installation by the dealer, thus equipped, power jumped from 375 horsepower
(280 kW) to 401 (299 kW).
1962 Ford Galaxie 406 (replica).
The power race however
was accelerating faster than the vehicles it inspired and in 1962, the Galaxie’s
new high-performance engine was a 406 cubic inch (FE) (6.6 litre) V8, offered
either with a single four-barrel carburetor and rated at 385 horsepower (287
kW) or a 405 horsepower (302 kW) version with the triple two-barrel Holleys. The 406 certainly delivered increased power
but the internal stresses this imposed, coupled with effects of the higher
speeds now possible exposed weaknesses in some aspects of underlying
engineering, some components being subject to forces never envisaged in the
late 1950s when the design was finalized.
The most obvious and frequent failure afflicted the main (bottom-end)
bearings and, part-way during the production run, change was made to add a
second set of bolts to secure the main-bearing caps, the novelty being that
they were drilled sideways, entering through the skirt of the block, thus
gaining the moniker “cross-bolted”.
Ford Galaxie 427s, Brands Hatch, 1963.
The
406 however had a production life of less than two years, replaced in 1963 by a
the 427 cubic inch (FE) V8, an engine which would be offered in so many
configurations that the stated power ratings were more indicative than
calculated but the versions available for the street versions of the Galaxie
were rated at 410 horsepower (360 kW) if fitted with a single four barrel
carburetor and 425 (317 kW) if running a pair.
The 427 would go on to a storied and decorated history on the street,
strip and circuit including twice winning the 24 hour classic at Le Mans but unexpectedly, it had a successful career in saloon
car racing in England, Australia, South Africa and New Zealand. Predicted at the time to be briefly fast,
loud and spectacular before its hunger for brake linings and tyres ended its
outings, it instead proved competitive, stable and reliable, dominating the
1963 British Saloon Car Championship, ending the reign of the 3.8 litre Jaguars. In
the US however, although the 427 had powered the Galaxie to trophy winning
successes in the 1964 NASCAR season, the larger displacement had further increased
internal pressures and reliability issues with the bottom end had again been
encountered. The cross-bolting had
solved the issues caused by vibration but now the lubrication was proving inadequate,
the oiling system setup to first to lubricate the top end and then to the
crankshaft. The solution was another oil
galley along the side of the block, delivering priority lubrication to the bottom
end; introduced in 1965 as a running change, these engines came to be known as “side-oilers”,
the earlier versions retrospectively known as “top oilers”.
1966 Galaxie 500 7 Litre. In 1967, the "Galaxie" designation was no longer attached to the 427 & 428 cars and they were simply "7 Litre".
By
1966, the era of the Galaxie as a race car was nearly over, Ford finding the
Lotus Cortina and the Mustang better platforms on tighter circuits; as well as sometimes
being quicker, their thirst and appetite for tyres and brake pads much
lower. On the big NASCAR ovals, the race
teams during the year switched from full-sized cars to intermediates, the Fairlane
(the name re-applied to a smaller vehicle after 1962) now the standard (though in this role it would become better known as the Torino). In 1966 & 1967, the 427 remained
available but demand was muted, the two-door Galaxie gaining an option called “7
Litre” and the choice was between the 427 (noisy, cantankerous, an oil burner,
expensive and very powerful) or the 428 (mild-mannered, smooth, quiet, cheap
and powerful enough) and the market spoke, the sales breakdown between the
427/428 in 1966/1967 being 11035/38 and 1056/12. The message was clear; there were many who
wanted high-performance cars but fewer than before now wanted the package in a big
machine, the attention of the market now focused on the intermediates and pony
cars. Like all the 427s, the rarity of 7
Litres so equipped makes them a collectable and as an example, within the dozen
sold in 1967 there’s a hierarchy of desirably based on (1) the bodywork and (2)
the induction system. Usually the transmission
is also a factor in such things but all the 7 Litres built that year with a 427
had the four-speed Manual. In the
breakdown, there were ten hardtops and two convertibles. Only two of the hardtops used a single four
barrel carburettor (the 427-4v) with the other eight fitted with the dual-quad
apparatus (427-8v). Both convertibles
used the 427-8v which makes that the most valuable specification. For the 7 Litre, Ford really did use the French
spelling, presumably to keep it in linguistic sympathy with “Galaxie”, rather
than an allusion to anything “European”.
Neither car nor the engines were even vaguely “Europeanesque” which had
been the rationale tempting Pontiac in the same era to use “litre” to
differentiate its SOHC (single overhead camshaft) version of the Chevrolet
straight-six from the rest of the industry’s OHV (overhead valve) engines which
still used pushrods to activate the valves.
There were then many European SOHC (and even DOHC (double overhead
camshaft)) engines but they tended to be installed in distinctly “European cars”
which were smaller and lighter and for what Pontiac produced, the OHV engines
were at the time a better choice. The
SOHC Pontiac six lasted only three seasons (1966-1969).
1970 Ford XL.
For 1970,
except for a run of heavy-duty units for police fleets which used the old 428, the
top-line option the full-sized range switched to the new 429 cubic inch (7.0
litre) V8 (a short-stroke version of the long-running 460 (7.5), both from the “385”
family), designed with emission control systems in mind, which had for a couple
of seasons been offered in the Thunderbird before migrating to other lines
including, most famously, the Boss Mustang.
Although available in a version rated at 360 horsepower (265 kW) which
was rather more convincing than some of the ratings used on some of the 390s
& 428s, the emphasis was now on effortlessness rather than outright
performance although Ford was the last of the big three still to offer a
four-speed manual gearbox in the big cars and the option lasted until 1970
although the deletion from the option list must have been a late change because
while brochures printed for that year’s range included it, it seems none were
built. Technically,
by then such things were no longer Galaxies, the two-doors after 1967 called
just “Ford XL” although everyone at the time appears to have called them
Galaxies. Whether no customers in 1970 ordered
a four-speed manual transmission for their big-block XL or Ford simply decided
not to build any isn’t known but it was obvious the writing was on the wall for
high-performance configurations in full-size cars. For 1970, Chevrolet had withdrawn the SS option from the Impala although a potent big-block engine remained available but it was Plymouth which unexpectedly explored the parts bin and conjured up the last of big multi-carburetor cars.
Plymouth's
battlecruiser: 1970 Fury GT.
While Plymouth had also
abandoned the four-speed manuals in such things, for those with a hankering of
the ways things used to be done, there was the Sport Fury GT, offered with either
a 440 cubic inch (7.2 litre) V8 (rated at 350 HP with a single four barrel
carburetor) or the “440 Six Barrel” (with three two-barrel carburettors and a
perhaps conservative rating of 390 HP).
Given the nature of machine, it probably anyway was best suited to an
automatic and Chrysler’s TorqueFlite 727 was one of the industry’s best but
demand was low; of the 666 GTs built, only 64 came with the six barrel option
(eleven of which are believed to have survived, five of them with the original
440 still in place). The craziness
however was nearly done and the six barrel option was withdrawn for 1971, demand that year further declining with only 375 sold. The highly strung engine did however survive
into 1971 when it was offered in high performance pony cars and intermediates
but that was the end of the line (although a reputed six or seven 1972 Plymouth
Road Runners built late in 1971 were so-equipped). There was however a quixotic coda because the
surplus stock, rendered unsalable in the US by tightening emission controls,
was offered at a good price to Jensen in the UK and they used them to create
231 Interceptor SPs but for a variety of reasons the transplant proved
troublesome, Jensen not taking up their option to purchase a second tranche
of engines.
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