Kammback

Kammback (pronounced cam-bak)

A motif in automotive styling (originally dictated by wind tunnel findings during research into aerodynamic properties) in which rear of the car slopes downwards before being abruptly cut off to terminate in a vertical or near-vertical surface.  The things are known also as the Kamm tail (K-tail).

1950s (the actual design first appearing in 1938): The construct was Kamm + back.  The surname Kamm (related to Kamp) was of Germanic or Jewish (Ashkenazic) origin and translates literally from the German as “comb”.  The German comb was from the Middle High German kamb, kambe, kam & kamme and the Yiddish kam (comb).  Genealogists conclude Kamm was probably an metonymic occupational surname for someone who either made or sold combs, a common tool used for grooming or for textile work such as carding or combing wool.  There’s also the possibility the name of some Kamm clans could have been of topographic origin because in German, Kamm can also mean “ridge” or “crest” of a hill, mountain or some other elevation; it could thus have referred to someone who lived near such a geographical feature.  Less likely is that some arose from nicknames based on physical features or personal characteristics with Kamm used to describe someone with hair resembling a comb or someone with a sharp or distinctive personality.  The surname emerged in the Middle Ages, a time when hereditary family names were becoming more common in German-speaking regions and in addition to the presence in Germany, exists at various scale in areas with a historic patter of German migration (notably the north-eastern US and South Australia.

Back was from the Middle English bak, from the Old English bæc, from the Proto-West Germanic bak, from the Proto-Germanic bakam & baką which may be related to the primitive Indo-European beg- (to bend).  In other European languages there was also the Middle Low German bak (back), from the Old Saxon bak, the West Frisian bekling (chair back), the Old High German bah and the Swedish and Norwegian bak; there are no documented connections outside the Germanic and in other modern Germanic languages the cognates mostly have been ousted in this sense by words akin to Modern English ridge such as Danish ryg and the German Rücken.  At one time, many Indo-European languages may have distinguished the horizontal back of an animal or geographic formation such as a mountain range from the upright back of a human while in some cases a modern word for "back" may come from a word related to “spine” such as the Italian schiena or Russian spina or “shoulder”, the examples including the Spanish espalda & Polish plecy.

Tail was from the Middle English tail, tayl & teil (hindmost part of an animal), from the Old English tægl & tægel (tail), from the Proto-Germanic taglaz & taglą (hair, fibre; hair of a tail) (source also of the Old High German zagal, the German Zagel (tail), the dialectal German Zagel (penis), the Old Norse tagl (horse's tail) and the Gothic tagl (hair), from the primitive Indo-European doklos, from a suffixed form of the roots dok & dek- (something long and thin (referring to such things as fringe, lock of hair, horsetail & to tear, fray, shred)), source also of the Old Irish dual (lock of hair) and the Sanskrit dasah (fringe, wick).  It was cognate with the Scots tail (tail), the Dutch teil (tail, haulm, blade), the Low German Tagel (twisted scourge, whip of thongs and ropes; end of a rope), the dialectal Danish tavl (hair of the tail), the Swedish tagel (hair of the tail, horsehair), the Norwegian tagl (tail), the Icelandic tagl (tail, horsetail, ponytail), and the Gothic tagl (hair). In some senses, development appears to have been by a generalization of the usual opposition between head and tail.  The Oxford English Dictionary (OED) suggest the primary sense, at least among the Germanic tongues, seems to have been "hairy tail," or just "tuft of hair," but already in Old English the word was applied to the hairless "tails" of worms, bees etc.  The alternative suggestion is that the notion common to all is that of the "long, slender shape."  It served as an adjective from the 1670s.  A long obsolete Old English word for tail was steort.  Kammback is a noun; the noun plural is kammbacks.  No lexicographer seems to have listed Kammbackesque, Kammbacklike or Kammbackish as standard adjectives but, given the extent of the deviances from Professor Kamm's original which are still labelled as “Kammbacks”, they might be useful forms.  Who wouldn't want to be able to use terms like the comparative “more Kammbackish” and the superlative “most Kammbackish”?

Some notable Kammbacks

The Kammback (also known as the Kamm tail) was named after German engineer & aerodynamicist Professor Wunibald Kamm (1893–1966) who during the 1930s pioneered the shape, his work assisted greatly by some chicanery within the Nazi military-industrial complex which enabled the FKFA (Forschungsinstituts für Kraftfahrwesen und Fahrzeugmotoren Stuttgart (Research Institute of Automotive Engineering and Vehicle Engines Stuttgart) institute he established in 1930s to secure funding to construct a full-sized wind tunnel equipped with a two-part steel treadmill in the floor and an 8.8 metre (350 inch) diameter axial fan, able to drive air at up to 400 km/h (250 mph).  What the two concentric floor turntables allowed was that as well as enabling turbulence to be studied from the side on the running steel belt, slip angles were also possible.   At the time, it was the most modern structure of its kind on the planet, the very existence of which was owed to the priority afforded by the Nazis to re-armament, especially the development of modern airframes, most of the money eventually coming from the Reichs-Luftfahrt-Ministerium (RLM, the State Air Ministry).

A classic Kammback on a 1970 Fiat 850 Coupé (1965-1973), one of the last of the generation of post-war mainstream rear-engined cars built in Western Europe.

While Professor’s Kamm’s work on automobile shapes continued, increasingly the facility became focused on military contracts, contributing to an extraordinary range of novel aircraft designs, some revolutionary and most of which would never reach production.  All of this ceased in July 1944 when the facility was severely damaged in air-raids by Royal Air Force (RAF) Bomber Command, a costly campaign in which one mission incurred a loss-ration of 20% and it wasn’t until the late 1940s that reconstruction began after it was acquired by Daimler-Benz AG which enlarged and modernized the machinery, the early fruits including the 300 SL (the W194, first gullwing coupé) which won the 1952 Le Mans 24 hour race and the W196R “streamliner” Grand Prix race cars which created such a sensation in 1954.  Although he wasn’t part of “Operation Paperclip” (the US project which secured (by various means including the military “smuggling” them into the country despite many being wanted by those investigating war crimes and crimes against humanity) Professor Kann was acknowledged as one of the world’s leading authorities on turbulence and between 1947-1953 was part of the team working at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio.  Some of what was undertaken then remains classified but it can be assumed it was all related to military projects and what would later become the space program.

The Kammback which really wasn't: 1976 Chevrolet Vega Kammback.

One often misunderstood aspect of the Kamm tail is that the aerodynamic benefits are realized only if the flat, vertical surface created was no more than about 50% of the total area of the vehicle (as viewed directly from the back).  That’s why even designs which don’t conform to the requirements are often casually referred to as “Kammbacks” and in the US, Chevrolet were cynically opportunistic when the Vega range (1970-1977) included what was nothing more than a two-door station wagon (estate), it was named “Vega Kammback”.  Actually, even the existence of the thing in the US was unusual because at that stage, General Motors (GM) really “didn’t like” small station wagons but many critics did agree the Kammback was the best looking of the Vega’s body-styles.

2023 Ford Mustang coupe (left) and convertible (right).  Three of the Mean Girls (2004) ensemble (Karen Smith (Amanda Seyfried (b 1985)), Gretchen Wieners (Lacey Chabert (b 1982)) & Cady Heron (Lindsay Lohan (b 1986)) in 2023 filmed a commercial for Pepsi Corporation, one of the props a 2023 Ford Mustang convertible.  So ubiquitous has the Kammback become that its now unnoticed (except in its absence), one quirk being that when convertibles are created from such a base, many of the aerodynamic advantages are lost, one reason why (all else being equal which is rarely the case) a convertible will tend to have slightly inferior performance and slightly higher fuel consumption.

The knowledge gained from aero-engine development during World War I (1914-1918) meant even the mainstream engines of the 1920s were developing much more power so the speeds of cars were rising.  Some intrepid types also took advantage of the number of huge, powerful aero-engines being sold cheaply as “war surplus”, installing them is powerboats and racing cars, resulting in some fast machines and not a few fatalities.  However, it became clear the law of diminishing returns applied as speeds rose because while an increase of 100 horsepower might make possible an increase in top speed from 100 to 120 mph, another 100 hp might yield only another 10 mph; wind resistance increasing too much for the power to overcome.  Thus the interest in aerodynamics, then usually called “streamlining” something which, coincidently, produced some memorable art deco designs buy the engineers were interested in higher speeds and lower fuel consumption for a given quantum of energy input (fuel consumption).

2014 Shelby American Cobra 427 50^th Anniversary Edition in aluminium (left) and 1964 Shelby Daytona Coupe (right).

The AC Shelby Cobra (1962-1967) was small, light and powerful which made it an instant success on the race tracks but, ruggedly handsome though it was, its aerodynamics limited the top speed and on the some fast, open European circuits it gave away as much as 50 km/h (30 mph) to less powerful but more streamlined machines.  More power wasn’t the solution but a new Kammback body was and the Daytona duly won its class in the 1965 World Sports Car Championship.  All used the 289 cubic in (4.7 litre) Ford Windsor V8 although one briefly was fitted with a 390 (6.5) FE V8 and the planned 427 (7.0) version (CSX3027, the so-called “Daytona Super Coupe”) was never completed until sold by Shelby some 17 years later in a “rummage sale”.  The Kammback Daytona was the work of US designer Pete Brock (b 1936) and in a macabre coincidence, his namesake, the Australian racing driver Peter Brock (1945–2006) was killed while competing (in retirement) in a replica Daytona Coupe during the now defunct Targa West (2005-2021) in Western Australia.

Before the Kammback, the state of the aerodynamic art was the airship-like "streamliner" which, although it probably didn't cross the engineers' minds, owed something to the train of a bride's gown.  1939 Lincoln Zephyr V12 Coupe (left) and 1937 Mercedes-Benz 540K (W29) Special Roadster (originally delivered to Mohammad Zahir Shah (1914–2007; the last King of Afghanistan 1933-1973) (right).

What soon became clear was that the shape of the dirigible (better known as the “airship” or “blimp”) was close to ideal and needed to be tweaked only by honing it into a “teardrop shape” with a rounded nose, extending to a long, tapered tail, a shape which in the 1930s caught the imagination of designers who rendered some memorable designs although the most famous were impractical and inefficient in terms of packaging, thus suitable only for the then small market niche which sought speed.  It was to try to gain the benefits of streamlining in a shape more suitable for mass production that Professor Kamm and others took their slide-rules to the wind tunnel began to experiment.  The solution which emerged was to terminate the lovely, long flowing roofline with an abrupt end at a surface which was either vertical or close to it, an unexpected benefit being an improvement in high-speed stability, obviating the need for (a usually central) stabilizing fin (a la an aircraft’s tail).  By 1938, BMW had produced a car with a Kammback and although World War II (1938-1945) interrupted development by the late 1940s the shape had begun to appear in showrooms and in little more than ten years it was common in specially bodied racing cars.  That didn’t mean the allure of the teardrop went away because the aerodynamicists (who now had both access to bigger wind tunnels in which higher speeds could be tested and the novelty of computers which could process previously unimaginable quantities of data) could still prove ultimate slipperiness could be attained only with the teardrop.

Pre-Kammback & non-Kammback.  Porsche 917LH (Langheck (long tail)) at Arnage, Le Mans 24 hour, 1969 (left) and 2020 McLaren Speedtail (right).  Such things are now possible.

It was this which convinced Porsche to use such a tail on their revolutionary 917 in 1969 and having encountered no stability issues on their test track, sent the car to the circuits where it proved as fast as expected.  Unfortunately, the size of the Porsche test facility limited the 917 to 290 km/h (180 mph) and when on the long straights of some European circuits when speeds exceeded 320 km/h, it was clear the thing was lethally unstable.  Although the drivers killed at the wheel of the early 917s didn’t die at such velocities, it was understood it would be only a matter of time so the rear bodywork was redesigned.  When in 2018 McLaren returned to the teardrop for the “Speedtail” (a car which sacrificed just about anything not mandated by law in the quest for top speed), it was able to achieve a safe (it’s a relative term) 400 km/h (250 mph) because advances in aerodynamics, computing, materials & hydraulics had made such things possible although the packaging inefficiencies remained, something not significant for the target market.

Cloisonné

Cloisonné (pronounced kloi-zuh-ney or klwa-zaw-ney (French))

(1) A decorative technique for metalwork, especially brass, whereby colored enamel is baked between raised ridges of the metal; among those for whom "price-taggery" is the measure of things, it was sometimes disparaged as a cheaper alternative to jeweled encrustation or filigree.

(2) Pertaining to, forming, or resembling cloisonné or the pattern of cloisonné.

(3) As applied to metalwork, objects decorated by this technique collectively.

1863: From the French cloisonné (divided into compartments, partitioned (especially in reference to surface decoration)), from the twelfth century Old French cloison (partition), from cloisonner (enclosure; to divide into compartments) from the Provençal clausiō, from the Vulgar Latin clausiōn, stem of clausiō (closed), noun of action from past participle stem of claudere (to close; shut).  The alternative spelling cloisonne is now more common in English.  Cloisonné is a noun; the noun plural is cloisonnés.  The noun cloisonnism describes a school of postimpressionist painting and the verb cloisonner (to partition, to compartmentalize) is French.

Lindsay Lohan wearing vintage art deco bracelet in triangulated black & white, May 2007.

There were several steps in the cloisonné enamel process and they have been little changed since the process was first used in Egypt prior to 1800 BC when gold ornaments were inlaid with small pieces of turquoise, lapis lazuli, carnelian and garnet, the inlays held in position by ribs soldered to the gold base.  Although there’s no surviving evidence in archaeological digs, the speculation of Egyptologists is that goldsmiths and glass workers collaborated to forge or fabricate their creations using artificial gems.  Pieces of colored glass were substituted for the stones and some appear to have been cemented in place.  The modern sequence is usually:

(1) Design and Preparation: The artisan will create a two dimensional sketch which develops into a detailed design; this can be on paper or a digital rendering which is then transferred onto a metal object, made usually of bronze, copper or gold.

(2) Wire Application (Cloisons): Thin metal wires (usually of copper or gold) are shaped to suit the design; these are soldered or glued to the metal surface, forming compartments (cloisons).  It’s these wires which lend a three dimensional form to the design, acting as the barriers which will contain the various enamel colors.

(3) Enamel Filling: Enamel (powdered glass which is mixed with water to form a paste) is applied within the cloison compartments.  While there are designs which used only the one shade of enamel, historically the style is associated with contrasting colors, some vivid, some dark.

(4) Firing: Once the compartments have been filled, the object is fired in a high-temperature kiln.  This causes the enamel to melt, fusing it with the metal; depending on the design, multiple firings may be required to build up the enamel layers and achieve the desired thickness and finish.

(5) Polishing: After the final firing, the surface of the object is polished, this both smoothing the enamel to its final shape and enhancing the color.  As part of this process, some enamel may be removed so the metal wires are granted greater prominence better to define the shapes.

French Second Empire gilt cloisonné enamel carriage clock, circa 1870.

The intricate metalwork and detailed cloisonné engravings associated with the clocks of the First French Empire have always attracted collectors and there’s a view in the industry they’re superior in just about every way to those of the Second Empire.  They certainly tend to be more expensive.  There are those who prefer the later clocks, especially the more restrained.  For the discerning, a sub-genre of Second Empire horology was the carriage (or travelling) clock, small, sturdy and created in shapes suitable to packing in regular-sized boxes.  The earliest were purely functional with little embellishment but their diminutive form appealed to designers seeking to create exquisite miniatures.  From the mid-century on, an increasing number were produced for household use and it’s doubtful many were much used by those on the move.

The cloisonné "N.A.R.T." badge.

The Ferrari 275 GTB/4 NART Spider was a roadster commissioned by Ferrari's North American concessionaire, Italian-born Luigi Chinetti (1901–1994) who ran the N.A.R.T, (North American Racing Team) and wanted to offer something in the spirit of the charismatic 250 California Spiders (1957-1963).  Built by Ferrari's coachbuilder Scaglietti, the N.A.R.T. Spider was certainly a worthy successor but, being very much a traditional sports car with few of the luxury fittings to which buyers had quickly become accustomed, demand was subdued, most preferring its less raucous companion, the 330 GTS which pampered occupants with niceties like power steering, electric windows and air conditioning.  The NART's high price didn't help and of the planned run of 25, only ten were built.  Thus mostly unwanted when new, as a used car the performance of the 275 NART has been stellar, chassis #10709 selling at auction in 2013 for US$27.5 million.  Informally always known as the "NART Spider" despite the factory not using the designation, the only hint of its unusual gestation was a cloisonné badge with the N.A.R.T.'s logo, installed on the Kammback tail.

1967 Ferrari 275 GTB/4 NART Spider.

The NART's existence also created a footnote in the history of Ferrari nomenclature.  Although the ten made have always been regarded as official factory models, Enzo Ferrari (1898-1988) was noticeably restrained in his enthusiasm for the venture and instead of being named 275 GTS/4 as would have been the current practice, it was listed in the records of both Scaglietti and the factory as the 275 GTB/4 NART spider.  That may have been because there had already been a 275 GTS (1964-1966) although it had been replaced by the 330 GTS by the time the NART cars were built or it may simply have been Il Commendatore didn't like his plans being changed.  Because of the high prices the things attract when from time to time they are offered at auction, the sales are always well publicized and the modern practice seems sometimes to label them as "NART 275 GTB/4S", "NART 275 GTB/4s" or "NART 275 GTB/4*S".  Given the well-known history and status of the NARTs, the appended "S" seems superfluous however written.  Being are rare, pre-modern Ferrari, there is of course a pecking order of desirability among the ten and the ones most lusted for are the two built with aluminium coachwork, one of which came second in class (with two female drivers, (Denise McCluggage (1927–2015) & Marianne "Pinkie" Rollo (b 1933)) in the 1967 Sebring 12 Hours.  That machine had originally been finished in Giallo Solare (Sun Yellow) but was repainted in burgundy when used in the film The Thomas Crown Affair (1968) because the darker shade worked better for the cinematographer.

Boss

Boss (pronounced bos or baws)

(1) A person who employs or supervisors workers; a manager; a person in charge of a business or company.

(2) A politician who controls the party organization, as in a particular district (historically most associated with the Democrat & Republican party “machines” in US cities from the mid-nineteenth to the late twentieth centuries and notorious for devious, corrupt or illegal practices and still used in many countries where the US influence was strong, notably the Philippines.

(3) To be master of or over; manage; direct; control; to be a boss.

(4) To order about (used especially if conducted in an officious manner.

(5) To be too domineering and authoritative (often as “bossy”).

(6) To ornament with bosses; to emboss.

(7) In slang, first-rate; the best.

(8) In botany & zoology, a protuberance or roundish excrescence on the body or some internal organ of an animal or on a plant.

(9) In geology, a knob-like mass of rock, especially an outcrop of igneous or metamorphic rock, applied particularly to the uppermost part of an underlying batholith.

(10) An ornamental protuberance of metal, ivory, etc; a stud.

(11) In architecture, an ornamental, knob-like projection, as a carved keystone at the intersection of ogives.

(12) A stone roughly formed and set in place for later carving.

(13) In bookbinding, one of several pieces of brass or other metal inset into the cover of a book to protect the corners or edges or for decoration.

(14) In engineering, a small projection on a casting or forging appearing on a machine or fitting; an area of increased thickness, usually cylindrical, that strengthens or provides room for a locating device on a shaft, hub of a wheel etc

(15) In nautical use, a projecting part in a ship's hull or in one frame of a hull, fitting around a propeller shaft.

(16) In plumbing, to hammer (sheet metal, as lead) to conform to an irregular surface.

(17) In dialectal (northern English) use, a familiar name for a calf or cow.

(18) In dialectal (Scots) use, hollow.

(19) As the abbreviation BOSS, the Bureau of State Security; an apartheid-era branch of the South African security police which existed 1969-1980.

(20) In informal use (particularly in India and in Multicultural London English (MLE)), a term of address to a man, not of necessity related to employment, status or other relationships but also as an alternative of “guv” or “guvnor”.

(21) In video gaming, an enemy, often at the end of a level, that is particularly challenging and must be beaten in order to progress (from the Far East), from the Japanese ボス (bosu).  In Swedish, the related form is slutboss (the construct being slut (end) +‎ boss (boss) and synonymous with sista bossen).

(22) In (allegedly) humorous use, one’s wife.

(23) In archery, a target block (now constructed usually of hard foam but historically made of hay bales), to which a target face is attached.

(24) In building, a wooden vessel for the mortar used in tiling or masonry, hung by a hook from the laths, or from the rounds of a ladder.

(25) In hydrology, a head or reservoir of water.

(26) A hassock or small seat, especially made from a bundle of straw (obsolete).

1250–1300: From the Middle English bos, bose & boce, from the Anglo-French boce (lump, growth, boil), from the Old French boce (lump, bulge, protuberance, knot), from either the Frankish bottja or the (unattested) Vulgar Latin bottia, both of uncertain origin but probably related to the Italian bozza (metal knob, swelling) and the Proto-Germanic bautaną (to hit, strike, beat).  By the turn of the fifteenth century, it was used in the sense of “to swell out; to beat or press into a raised ornament” and by the 1620s as “to furnish with bosses”.  The word survives as the Modern French bosse.

The (highly nuanced) use to mean “a supervisor” dates from the 1640s and was a creation of US English, from the Dutch baas (master, foreman).  The Dutch baas was from the Middle Dutch baes (master of a household, friend), from the Old Dutch baso (uncle, kinsman), from the Proto-West Germanic baswō, from the Proto-Germanic baswô (uncle) which may have been from the Proto-Germanic ba- or bō- (father, older male relative), the source also of the English terms babe, boy, bub & bully. It was cognate with the Middle Low German bās (supervisor, foreman), the Old Frisian bas (master), hence the Saterland Frisian Boas (boss) and the Old High German basa (father's sister, cousin) from which German gained Base (aunt, cousin) (although not all etymologists are convinced there’s a link with the Old High German basa).  The etymology seems to suggest the word originally was a term of respect used to address an older male relative (usually an uncle but also even others considered “honorary uncles”).  Later, in New Amsterdam (the old name for New York), it came to mean “a person in charge who is not a master (in the legal sense of ownership) and the representation of the Dutch -aa- by the English -o- is attributed to the older, unrounded pronunciation of this letter, which remains prevalent in North America and parts of Ireland, but in the colonial era existed also in some British accents.  The Dutch form baas is in English from the 1620s as the standard title of a Dutch ship's captain and the rapid adoption in the US may have reflected the popularity of a word which avoided the slavery implications of “master”, something never necessary in England where the terms master & servant were included in legislation into the twentieth century.

Lindsay Lohan released the track Bossy in May 2008.  It was classified as electropop & dance-pop and was about a bolshie woman; it’s thus considered autobiographical.

The slang adjective meaning “excellent; first rate” was in use at least by the 1880s although it faded from use before being revived (perhaps independently) in the 1950s, in the slang of US youth and jazz musicians.  The adjective bossy was developed from the noun and in the 1540s meant “a swelling, projecting and rounded, decorated with bosses” The meaning “domineering, fond of ordering people about” was first noted in 1882.  The use as the Scots adjective meaning “hollow; empty” dates from the early sixteenth century and is of obscure origin.  The northern English dialectal form which was a familiar name for a cow or calf was first documented in 1844 and was from the earlier dialectal form buss (calf) which is of uncertain origin but is thought almost certainly from the Latin bōs cow (ox), from the primitive Indo-European root gwou- (ox, bull, cow).  The verb emboss (to ornament with raised work) dated from the late fourteenth century and was from the Old French embocer (and thus a similar form to embocieure (boss, stud, buckle), from an assimilated form of the construct en- (in, into) + boce (knoblike mass).  The synonyms, depending on context includes administrator, chief, chieftain, director, employer, executive, leader, owner, supervisor, capital, champion, fine, fly, top, controller (or comptroller), executive, foreman, foreperson, head, honcho, head honcho, overseer & superintendent.  Boss is a noun, verb & adjective, bosser & bossiness are nouns, bossed is a verb, bossing is a verb & adjective, bossily is an adverb and bossy is an adjective; the noun plural is bosses.

The Boss Mustangs

During the initial development phase in 1968-1969, the project code for Ford’s Boss Mustang programme was the bland “SKO” (Special Mustang, Kansas City Operation).  According to industry legend, secrecy was maintained by instructing the staff working to the prototype to respond to any questions about the vehicle by saying “it’s the boss’s car.”  Whether or not that’s true, it was the project's boss (the chief engineer) who suggested the “BOSS” name formerly be adopted as the official model designation and although the management team initially responded with restrained enthusiasm, the production cars emerged as 1969 models as the “Boss Mustang” and the response was so good it was continued for three seasons and the corporation has over the decades revived the name, both in the US and Australia.

1969 Ford Mustang Boss 302.

The first of the line was the Boss 302, introduced in 1969.  The Boss 302 existed solely to ensure Ford would have a competitive entry for the SCCA’s (Sports Car Club of America) Trans-Am series which was conducted in two classes, one for cars with engines up to 2.0 litres (122 cubic inch) and one with a five litre (305 cubic inch) limit, the Mustangs campaigned in the latter.  Ford had enjoyed early success in the series but Chevrolet’s Camaro had prevailed in 1968, its Z/28 package optimized for the road circuits on which the events were conducted and Ford’s initial response had been the “Tunnel Port” engine, developed with cylinder heads cleverly designed for top end power at the expense of just about everything else.  The tunnel ports certainly delivered the power but the high-revving engines proved chronically unreliable although the debate about whether this was a fundamental flaw in the design or some laxness in the preparation has never been resolved and their performance in competition over the decades since does suggest that if assembled and maintained with the appropriate care, they’re a robust unit.

1970 Ford Mustang Boss 302.

However, noting the care with which the Z/28 had been configured, Ford decided to follow their example and conceived the Boss 302 Mustang with a bucket of money in one hand and plans of the Trans-Am’s circuits in the other.  Added to the robust 302 cubic inch (4.9 litre) Windsor block were more modern cylinder heads with canted valves, emulating the approach adopted for the new Cleveland (335) series V8.  Unlike the highly strung tunnel ports, the Boss 302 had a wider power band and more low-speed torque, characteristics more suited to the race tracks.  To comply with the homologation rules, 1000 identical examples had to be sold but such was the demand 1628 were built, all fitted with the modifications to the brakes and suspension required to provide the basis of a successful race car.  Despite it all, the Camaro again won the series in 1969 but the Boss 302 returned to take the title in 1970 and that year's model proved even more popular with 7013 sold.

1969 Ford Mustang Boss 429.

The homologation of the Boss 302 for competition was a simple matter in that it was a complete package, as required under SCCA rules.  The Boss 429 Mustang was different in that it was only the engine which was required to be built is sufficient numbers, 500 required for them to be used on the NASCAR (National Association of Stock Car Auto Racing) ovals & circuits and with 850 built in 1969 (a further 500 1970 models following), the threshold was reached.  The Mustang was not used in the main NASCAR events but such was the symbiotic relationship between the sanctioning body and the manufacturers that Ford was granted permission separately to homologate the platform and the powerplant, the intermediate Torino Talladegas (actually to be used) with their aerodynamic enhancements produced in their run of 500 (which may or may not have been produced in time) but fitted with ordinary engines.  So cooperative was NASCAR that they even nudged their capacity limit to 430 cubic inches to accommodate Ford’s new engine which was just slightly larger than the previous 7 litre mark.  Ford's approach sounds needlessly complicated (as well as being expensive) but market research suggested that while demand would exist for at least 500 Boss 429 Mustangs, 500 Ford Torinos & Mercury Cyclones (the models actually used in NASCAR competition) with the big engine might be hard to shift.

Boss 429 in 1969 Mercury Cyclone, 1971 Daytona 500.

The decision was thus taken to put the Boss 429 in the pony car but it was not a simple task and one certainly not appropriate for Ford’s high volume, mass-production lines so the job was out-sourced to a third party which received a series of deliveries in two parts, (1) batches of complete cars and (2) crates containing engines.  The task was to remove the existing engine (to be returned to the factory), make the necessary modifications to the body and suspension, fit the Boss 429 and attend to all the small details which made the cars into regular production models.  The concept was simple but the wide engine wouldn’t fit without significant changes and although Ford never revealed how much of a loss it made on each Boss 429, estimates by "normally reliable sources" figured it in the low four figures (ie more than US$1000) per unit.  Still, they must have been pleased with the investment because the engine did the job in NASCAR and the aura surrounding the Boss 429 Mustang has grown over the years.  That however took a while because it wasn’t wholly suited to life on the street or the drag-strip and was at its happiest only when on a racetrack at full throttle, breathing in through a very big carburetor and out through free-flowing tubular headers.  On the street, the problem was the same as that which plagued the tunnel port 302: the huge intake ports meant a lack of low-speed responsiveness (ie low-speed torque) because there was insufficient pressure for the fuel/air mix.  The professionals however learned quickly, the pioneers of the then still novel business of turbo-charging finding the Boss 429 took to forced aspiration like few others.

The one-off, mid-engined Mustang Boss 429 (left) and the adapted drivetrain package (right).  Unusually (although in 1969 anything mid-engined was "unusual"), the gearbox was in front of the engine with the differential behind, the same arrangement which two years later Lamborghini would display when the prototype Countach LP500 made its debut at the 1971 Geneva Motor Show.   

One quirky footnote in Boss 429 statistics is that although the orthodoxy is all were fitted with four-speed manual gearboxes, three were built with Ford's C6 automatic transmission.  One was a "proof of concept" mid-engined car which is believed to have been crushed once the evaluation was process was complete while the other two were part of a fleet of seven (the other five powered by the 428 CobraJet engine) built for the "1970 Military Performance Tour", a program run in response to the alarming finding the death toll of soldiers buying muscle cars after returning from tours of duty in Vietnam was close to battlefield losses.  One of the automatic Boss 429 Mustangs survived and the unique machine is still in private hands.  The mid-engined car was built under the program code LID (Low-Investment Drive-train), an allusion to things being done "on the cheap", using as many off-the-shelf components as possible.  As a car, the thing worked well but despite the weight-distribution shifting from a nose-heavy 60/40 (front-rear) to 40/60, surprisingly, there was no significant improvement in performance.       

1971 Ford Mustang Boss 351.

Times had changed by 1971.  It was obvious to all the crazy era of the muscle cars was in its last days and both the Boss 302 and 429 were retired, the tasks of homologation done.  There was however a Boss 351 Mustang, a machine with no pretensions to any real link with competition although it was dressed up to look the part.  A development of Ford's 335 (Cleveland) series, it's an engine at which the purists have sometimes looked askance because it lacked the comprehensive lubrication system enjoyed by the Windsor which underlay the Boss 302s but for street use it's certainly more than adequate.  The lack of pedigree has meant the Boss 351 has never enjoyed the stellar reputation of its predecessors and its lines doubtlessly contributed to that, the new body bigger and heavier, lacking the litheness of the earlier years.  Even when standing still however the thing undeniably had a presence although the dramatic roofline (Ford called this implementation of the fastback motif the "sportsroof" and, with its correctly executed "Kammback", the claims to aerodynamic efficiency are plausible) did restrict rearward visibility, the glass close to horizontal.  Testing one in 1971, Car & Driver magazine observed: "It's like sitting in a bunker; You can hardly see out. The windows are gun slits, the belt line comes up almost to your chin and the nearly horizontal rear deck and wide roof pillars block off all but a shallow field of vision directly to the rear. You have a poor view of the road ahead of you as well. The long, level front fenders and the bulged up hood, block off an enormous area immediately in front of the car, and right turns, particularly those onto a section of road that falls away, are virtually blind."

1971 Ford Mustang Boss 351.

It may not have enjoyed the racing history of the Boss 302 or possessed the thoroughbred lineage of the Boss 429 but lurking behind all the thunder, the Boss 351 ranks with the best of the Chrysler 340s as one of the most under-estimated street engines of the era.  A glance at the specification sheet would certainly have impressed because the big valves and ports were serviced by a solid-lifter camshaft which provided more lift than anything in the industry apart from the duo of 427 cubic inch (7.0 litre) V8s (the L88 (1968 & 1969) and all aluminum ZL1 (1969)) which could be ordered in the Corvette and Chevrolet cautioned neither was "recommended for street use" (ie they were meant for drag strips and race tracks).  The Boss 351 wasn't that extreme and appeared in advertisements, unlike the the L88 which rated only a few words in the small print of the brochure while the ZL1 wasn't even mentioned, Chevrolet correctly concluding anyone who would buy such a thing already knew about it and those who did not would never buy one.  At the time, testers were impressed with Boss 351's performance, noting it could run with machines fitted with engines sometimes 100 cubic inches (1.6 litres) larger while at the same time delivering a better driving experience, the smaller, lighter weight over the front wheels making it rather more nimble although that phrase was relative; the Boss 351 was no Lotus Elan.  The engine technically was Ford’s short-lived 351 HO which in 1972 would be detuned for a final (non-Boss) season before falling victim to the increasingly restrictive emission regulations but demand was anyway falling; having sold over 7000 Boss 302s in 1970, only 1806 Boss 351s were made.  Things would get worse for the Mustang before they got better.

Duet

Duet (pronounced doo-et or dyoo-et (non-U))

(1) In music, a composition for two voices or instruments.

(2) An action or activity performed by a pair of closely connected individuals.

(3) A pair or couple, especially one that is harmonious or elegant.

1730–1740: From the Italian duet (a short musical composition for two voices), from duo (two) and a diminutive of the earlier duett & duetto, the construct being du(o) (duet) + -etto (from the Late Latin -ittum, accusative singular of –ittus, an alternative suffix used to form melioratives, diminutives, and hypocoristics).  The ultimate source was the Proto-Italic duō, from the primitive Indo-European dwóh.  The French adopted duet before the English in 1740 although the noun may have been used in English from circa 1724; as a verb (to perform a duet), use was first noted in 1822.  The technical form duettino (short, unpretentious duet) emerged by 1839.  Duet is a noun & verb, duetting & duetted are verbs and duettist is a noun; the noun plural is duets.

Madam Butterfly

Freni as Butterfly, Sofiensaal, Vienna, Austria, 1974.

One of opera’s most memorable duets is the long and rapturous love aria in Giacomo Puccini's (1858–1924) Madama Butterfly (1905).  Among the most performed works in the canon, a number are available on disc, the most radiant surely Herbert von Karajan's (1908–1989) 1974 recording for Decca (Decca 417 577-2DH3).  The lustre of the cast Karajan assembled to perform with the Vienna Philharmonic Orchestra and State Opera Chorus has not since been matched; with Mirella Freni (1935-2020) as Butterfly, Luciano Pavarotti (1935–2007) as Pinkerton and Christa Ludwig (1928–2021) as Suzuki, expectations were high but Karajan conducted a lush, high-drama which disappointed few.  Freni was of course a standout but Pavarotti, though not yet the superstar he would soon become, was at his peak and took to the role in a way that influences tenors to this day; Ludwig’s Suzuki remains unsurpassed in its style and by then, Karajan had been forgiven for everything.

Callas as Butterfly, La Scala, Milan, Italy, 1955.

Although Maria Callas (1923-1977) seemed even then an improbable Butterfly, her 1955 appearance at La Scala (Warner B00NMQTE4C) must have been extraordinary but, because of the mono technology of the age and some unsympathetic cutting, the recording can only hint at the power and passion of what critics at the time hailed a classic performance: Callas at her brilliant best, diction of cut crystal.  She may never have been the most refined of sopranos but she brought to her roles a thrilling intensity; just as other singers have delivered a more technically accomplished Lucia di Lammermoor, it’s the Callas version all remember because it was spine-chilling and her Butterfly is similarly unique.

Maria Callas (1923-1977), backstage, in costume, after appearing as Madam Butterfly, Civic Opera House, Chicago, 17 November 1955.  Had Cio-Cio-San been this feisty, she'd have kept Pinkerton. 

Bud Daley’s famous AP (Associated Press) photograph of diva Maria Callas, still in her Cio-Cio-San’s kimono, caught her snarling at US Federal Marshal Stanley Pringle, one of eight process servers there to serve her with two summonses.  The image was shot just after she'd left the stage, following her third and final performance in Giacomo Puccini's (1858–1924) Madama Butterfly (Madam Butterfly, 1904) and appeared the next morning on the front page of the Chicago Sun-Times with the headline: “Not So Prim a Donna”.  The article reported her words as: “Chicago will hear about this!  I will not be sued!  I have the voice of an angel!  No man can sue me.”  It transpired however at least one man could sue, the action brought by one Edward “Eddy” Bagarozy, who claimed to be the singer’s agent, an assertion based on a contract dating from 1947; the plaintiff sought (1) specific performance of the contract and (2) in the alternative, damages of US$300,000 (depending on the metrics chosen, equivalent to between US$4-6 million in 2025).  As in many such matters, ultimately, things were settled out of court.

1969 Alfa Romeo Spider Veloce 1750 with coda lunga (round tail).

Although The Alfa Romeo (type 105/115) Spider was continuous production between 1966-1993, it was only during the first three years the bodywork featured the memorable Osso di Seppia (round-tail, literally “cuttlefish”) coachwork.  After 1970, the Spider gained a Kamm tail which increased luggage capacity and presumably also conferred some aerodynamic advantage but purists have always coveted the cigar-shaped original.  One often misunderstood aspect of the Kamm tail is that the aerodynamic benefits are realized only if the flat, vertical surface created was no more than about 50% of the total area of the vehicle (as viewed directly from the back).  That’s why even designs which don’t conform to the requirements are often casually referred to as “Kamm tails”.

Two famous reality TV stars performing a "long and rapturous" love duet in a 2016 production.

The Kamm tail (also known as the Kammback) was named after German engineer & aerodynamicist Professor Wunibald Kamm (1893–1966) who during the 1930s pioneered the shape, his work assisted greatly by some chicanery within the Nazi military-industrial complex which enabled the FKFA (Forschungsinstituts für Kraftfahrwesen und Fahrzeugmotoren Stuttgart (Research Institute of Automotive Engineering and Vehicle Engines Stuttgart) institute he established in 1930s to secure funding to construct a full-sized wind tunnel equipped with a two-part steel treadmill in the floor and an 8.8 metre (350 inch) diameter axial fan, able to drive air at up to 400 km/h (250 mph).  What the two concentric floor turntables allowed was that as well as enabling turbulence to be studied from the side on the running steel belt, but slip angles were also possible.   At the time, it was the most modern structure of its kind on the planet and its very existence was owed to the priority afforded by the Nazis to re-armament, especially the development of modern airframes, most of the money eventually coming from the Reichs-Luftfahrt-Ministerium (RLM, the State Air Ministry).

1969 Alfa Romeo Spider Veloce 1750 with coda lunga.  In 1967, US legislation outlawed the Perspex headlight covers but in other places they were still often fitted.

While Professor’s Kamm’s work on automobile shapes continued, increasingly the facility became focused on military contracts, contributing to the extraordinary range of novel aircraft designs, some revolutionary and most of which would never reach production.  All of this ceased in July 1944 when the facility was severely damaged in air-raids by Royal Air Force (RAF) Bomber Command (a costly campaign on which one mission incurred a loss-rate of 20%) and it wasn’t until the late 1940s that reconstruction began after it was acquired by Daimler-Benz AG which enlarged and modernized the machinery, the early fruits including the 300 SL (the W194, first gullwing coupé) which won the 1952 Le Mans 24 hour race and the W196R Strómlinienwagen (literally "streamlined car" but translated usually as "Streamliner". “streamliner”) Formula One race cars which created such a sensation in 1954 (although the drivers were so enamoured, preferring to be able to see the front wheels so a conventional open-wheel version was created with the Strómlinienwagen subsequently used only on the circuits where the highest speeds were recorded.  Although he wasn’t part of “Operation Paperclip” (the US project which secured (by various means including the military “smuggling” them into the country despite many being wanted by those investigating war crimes and crimes against humanity), Professor Kann was acknowledged as one of the world’s leading authorities on turbulence and between 1947-1953 was part of the team working at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base in Dayton, Ohio.  Some of what was undertaken then remains classified but it can be assumed it was all related to military projects and what would later become the space program.

Lindsay Lohan duetting: On stage with Duran Duran (left) and spinning the vinyl with former special friend, DJ Samantha Ronson.

Alfa Romeo in 1965 conducted a competition to find a suitable name for the little roadster and in those days that meant running advertisements in newspapers (which people actually paid for and read) to which readers responded by cutting out and filling in the coupon, writing in their suggestion, putting it in an envelope on which they wrote the address, buying and affixing a stamp and putting envelope in mailbox.  The winning entry was "Duetto" which Alfa Romeo's directors liked because it summed up the romantic essence of a machine definitely built for a couple.  Unfortunately, for some tiresome legal reason relating to an existing trademark, it couldn't officially be used but for decades, among the cognoscenti, it's always been called the Duetto.

Track of the Kamm, Alfa Romeo Spiders: 1973 Series 2 (1970-1983, left), 1984 (Series 3 (1983-1990, centre) and 1992 Series 4 (1990-1993, right).  Things got worse before they got better. 

To keep the tiresome lawyers at bay, when released at the Geneva Motor Show in March 1966, the car was known as the Spider 1600, the advertising making clear it was intended to be a practical sports car, usable year-round rather than something intended for competition.  Among those who like to call them Duettos, there’s a sub-set of pedants who like to point out that while all Duettos are round-tails, not all round-tails are Duettos because in 1967, Alfa Romeo introduced the more powerful 1750 Spider Veloce and the less potent 1300 Junior, the former positioned a notch above the original, the latter one below.  That’s too nerdy for most who prefer to form factions based upon the tail treatment and surprisingly perhaps, many do seem to prefer the appearance of the abbreviated Kamm-tail and, again surprisingly, that included even the editors of the US magazine Road & Track (R&T), a publication in the 1960s inclined to see anything Italian through a rose-tint, called the coda lunga (round tail) “a contrived design with meaningless styling gimmicks.”  Professionally-trained designers tend not to like the original because in violating some of the rules they've been taught, it's judged flawed and probably much of the appeal of the coda lunga is as a period piece in the same way the exaggerated fins on the early Sunbeam Alpines (1959-1968) have a certain charm although few would claim their pruning didn’t improve the look.

1960 Volvo Duett P210 in station wagon form.  The steel wheels and hubcaps on this example are from the 1965-1969 run but were a common modification to earlier Duetts.

The spelling in Swedish for a musical performance by two is duett and when in 1953 Volvo released what they described as a dual purpose vehicle, the company choose to dub it Duett.  Adopting a technique used around the world, Volvo based the Duett on an existing passenger car, modified to the extent it became a useful, load-carrying utility vehicle which substantially retained the functionality of a sedan.  What was however untypical of the breed was that although the Duett (PV445 (1953-1960) & P210 (1960-1969)) was based on a sedan (PV444 (1944-1958) & PV544 (1958-1966)) which used modern unitary construction, it had a more robust ladder-frame chassis as its platform.  As well as ensuring greater durability, this had the advantage of meaning that in addition to the station wagon and panel van (often called “delivery sedan” in the US) bodies, the factory could provide coachbuilders a chassis with no bodywork aft of the windscreen; from these could be constructed ambulances, pick-ups and other specialized vehicles.  Remarkably, despite the agricultural nature of the chassis, some coachbuilders took advantage of the intrinsic rigidity and built four-seat cabriolets.  Befitting the intended purpose, instead of the sedan’s rear coil-spring, the Duett’s rear suspension used semi-ecliptics (“cart” or “leaf” springs) which (1) intruded less into the storage compartment meaning greater internal capacity, (2) were better suited to towing and (3) allowed a heavier freight-rating.  As is common with such vehicles, the Duett out-lasted the sedan on which it was based, the last made in 1969, some four years after the PV544 had been replaced by the 140 series (1966-1974).