Apostrophe

Apostrophe (pronounced uh-pos-truh-fee)

(1) The punctuation mark (') used variously: (1) to indicate the omission of one or more letters in a word, whether pronounced or unpronounced, (2) to indicate the possessive case or (3) to indicate plurals of abbreviations and symbols.

(2) In formal rhetoric (as the literary apostrophe), a digression in the form of an address to someone not present, or to a personified object or idea.

(3) In sociolinguistics & orthography, the text character (’) which serves as a punctuation mark in various languages and as a diacritical mark in certain rare contexts.

1525–1535: The use as a rhetorical device was from the Late Latin, from the Classical Latin apostrophe, from the Ancient Greek ἀποστροφή (apostrophḗ) (a turning away; a digression), the construct being apostroph-, verbid of apostréphein (to turn away) + -ē (the noun suffix).  The punctuation mark dates from 1580–1590 and was from the Middle French, replacing the earlier apostrophus, from the Late Latin, from the Ancient Greek ἀπόστροφος (apóstrophos) (accent of elision) (prosōidía) (eliding (mark) (literally “(mark) of turning away”), noun use of an adjective from ἀποστρέφω (apostréphō) (I turn away), verbid of apostréphein, the construct being ἀπό (apó) (away (which sometimes appeared as aph)) + στρέφω (stréphō or stréphein (to turn).  The now rare alternative forms were apostrophë & apostrophy and in non-US use apostrophise etc is more common than apostrophize etc.  Apostrophe & apostrophization are nouns, apostropher, apostrophizing & apostrophize are verbs, apostrophic & apostrophed are adjectives and apostrophically is an adverb; the noun plural is apostrophes.

Lindsay Lohan with pram, JFK airport, New York, January 2024.  In English, names with apostrophes are uncommon (almost all from other languages) but the punctuation mark is sometimes used as a guide to pronunciation.  Ms Lohan named her son (b 2023) Luai which in the Arabic is pronounced Lou’aye with the apostrophe operating as “a kind of break or a cut”.

There are a number of derived terms.  Some are purely descriptive (such as the “curly apostrophe”, the “perpendicular apostrophe”, “vertical apostrophe” and the “straight apostrophe” which in publishing are distinguished as the “typographic apostrophe” (an apostrophe that has a curved, asymmetrical form) (known also as the printer's apostrophe) and the “typewriter apostrophe” (an apostrophe with a straight, vertically symmetrical form).  In sociolinguistics & orthography, the apologetic apostrophe is imposed upon a Scots word in to lend it the appearance of being a contraction of an English word such as wi' (equivalent to the English “with”) and a' (equivalent to the English “all”).  The humorous apostrophectomy is a clinical procedure used by the grammar nazis ruthlessly to excise incorrect apostrophes, usually those used wrongly to form plurals.  The construct was apostrophe +‎ -ectomy (from the Ancient Greek -εκτομία (-ektomía) (a cutting out of), from ἐκτέμνω (ektémnō) (to cut out), the construct being ἐκ (ek) (out) + τέμνω (témnō) (to cut). The reverse procedure (inserting an apostrophe where one is required) was apostrophplant. the construct being apostroph(e) + (in)plant.  The grammar nazis operate usually on the “greengrocer's apostrophe” one where the symbol is used in error when forming a noun plural.  It’s probably a slight on greengrocers in that others are just as guilty but the most commonly cited examples are usually something like “Banana’s, 99c lb” rather than “Vegetarian Burger’s available”.  Among those in England who speak RP (Received Pronunciation, the “correct” form insisted on by the BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) until the 1960s (with the odd quirky exception)), the greengrocer's apostrophe is still sometimes known as the “Yorkshire apostrophe”; it’s a form of (southern) linguistic snobbery because the phenomenon certainly isn’t unique to those from the county.

The literary apostrophe is a figure of speech in which a thing, a place, an abstract quality, an idea, a dead or absent person, is addressed as if present and capable of understanding. Classic instances include Oliver Goldsmith’s (1728–1774) opening in The Deserted Village (1770): “Sweet Auburn, loveliest village of the plain…”; Antony's cry in William Shakespeare’s (1564–1616) Julius Caesar (1599): “'O Judgement! thou art fled to brutish beasts…”; William Wordsworth’s (1770–1850) passionate appeal in London 1812: “Milton! Thou should'st be living at this hour…” and the biblical: “O death, where is thy sting? O grave, where is thy victory?” (1 Corinthians 15:55; King James Version (KJV, 1611)).

The star cross'd lovers: Romeo and Juliet (1884), oil on canvas by Frank Bernard Dicksee (1853–1928), Southampton City Art Gallery.

As a mark indicating “an omitted letter”, the apostrophe was in common (though far from universal) use by the early sixteenth century and the origin of use as a possessive marker lay in one representing the loss of -e- in words ending in –es; by the mid eighteenth century, it was being applied to all possessives, whether or not they were ever once spelled with an additional “e”.  Another of the grammar nazis bugbears (they have many) is the incorrect use of “it’s” as a neuter possessive pronoun, the late sixteenth century construct being it + the genitive/possessive ending “'s”.  The correct use of “it’s” is as a contraction of “it is” etc but as a possessive form it endured until the early nineteenth century and etymologists suggest the decline in use was due to either because the contraction of “it is” had become established or to align use with the general practice of omitting apostrophes in personal pronouns (yours, hers, theirs et al.).  One of the best known instances of a word with a “apostrophe substitution” appears in Shakespeare’s Romeo and Juliet (1597) where “star cross’d lovers” is used to describe the doomed pair.

1967 Ford Mustang (left), 1970 Plymouth 'Cuda (the 1971 grill an aesthetic choice and the apostrophe indicating a clipping of “Barracuda”, the model designation used on the non high-performance models) (centre) and 1968 Chevrolet Camaro (right) at the Pikes Peak International Hill Climb (PPIHC) (the “Race to the Clouds”).  The three compete in the "Vintage Car" class.  The PPIHC is a marvelously anarchic event, run continuously since 1916 (except in 1917-1919 & 1942-1945 because of wartime restrictions) and an example of how good things can be if the FIA (the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (International Automobile Federation), world sport’s dopiest regulatory body) isn’t involved.

Pikes Peak in the US state of Colorado was in 1820 named (as Pike’s Peak) after Brigadier General Zebulon Pike (1779–1813) who led an earlier expedition (which failed to reach the summit).  It a shame the landmark wasn't named "Zebulon's Peak"; so much more evocative.  The name Zebulon was from the Latin Zabulon, from the Ancient Greek Ζαβουλών (Zaboulṓn), from the Biblical Hebrew זְבוּלוּן (z'vulún).  In the Hebrew, Zebulon was a male name meaning “exalted house,” “dwelling,” “lord,” or “prince” (the alternative spelling was Zebulun.  In biblical times, Zebulun was one of the twelve tribes of Israel and it was the given name for the sixth son of Jacob and his wife, Leah.  Prior to European settlement, the native peoples of the region called the peak variously Tava (Sun) or Heey-otoyoo' (Long mountain).  In 1890, the US Board on Geographic Names (BGN) introduced a policy avoiding the use of apostrophes in the possessive form in place names, the intent being: (1) a standardization convention to remove confusion, (2) to simplify the printing of maps by ensuring there were fewer clashes with special characters and (3) to remove another source of imaginative interpretation by lawyers.  An additional benefit was realized when computer databases began to be created and, especially in the early post-war years, many problems in indexing and formatting were avoided by restricting entries to letters & numbers.  In 1890, Pike’s Peak thus became Pikes Peak and just to make sure no grammar Nazis ever attempted a revival, in 1978 the Colorado state legislature outlawed the use of an apostrophe in Pikes Peak, apparently one of the world’s few laws about punctuation.  The BGN does make the odd exception in the case of places of historical significance and Martha's Vineyard was one of the few places to emerge with apostrophe intact.  

It’s a pity the BGN doesn’t set the other rules for the use of the apostrophe, a matter which so concerned Henry Fowler (1858–1933) that he devoted several paragraphs to the topic in A Dictionary of Modern English Usage (1926).  One helpful reform would be to standardize the placement when making a possessive of names ending in “s” and that rule should be: (1) when a name ends in a letter other than “s” the apostrophe sits before the appended (plural) “s” (Lindsay Lohan’s car) and (2) when a name ends in “s” the apostrophe follows (the so-called “trailing apostrophe”) (Britney Spears’ car).  That has the benefit of simplicity and would mean one wouldn’t have to choose between the various options published in style guides, some of which are based on the number of syllables and some on the sound of the word when pronounced.  It’s a layer of complication as unnecessary as adding pronunciation guides to printed numbers (1^st, 2^nd, 3^rd, 4^th etc) in that it’s a needless tribute by the written to the spoken; the human brain can manage without them.

Kamala Harris (b 1964; US vice president since 2021) and Tim Walz (b 1964; governor of Minnesota since 2019), on stage, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, 6 August 2024.

The issue flared when Kamala Harris announced Tim Walz as her running mate in the 2024 US presidential election for not only does “Harris” end in “s” but “Walz” when spoken sounds like it too ends thus, something which style guides variously suggest should exist in the possessive either as Walz’s or Walz’.  Clearly, he’s a trouble-maker.  Most of the grammar nazis (X (formerly known as Twitter) their natural home where debate ensued) seemed to conclude “Walz’s” was correct but Harris’ or Harris’s divided opinion, the factions forming to defend either (1) if the “s” is sounded, spell the “s” and (2) if it ends in an “s” regardless of pronunciation, it’s a trailing apostrophe.  Most dictionaries say either practice is acceptable provided use is consistent which is fence-sitting but reflects reality although there is the sense many editors would be happy if a universal appended “’s” was the “rule” so the tiresome debate would go away.  Presumably that would also please the Harris-Walz campaign team which has issued press releases which included “Harris’s positive vision” and “Harris’ seventh trip to Nevada.”

Henry Fowler’s A Dictionary of Modern English Usage has been influential for almost a century and it’s the original and the second edition (1965) edited by Sir Ernest Gowers (1880–1966) which remain the standard (the third (1996) and fourth (2015) editions less helpful although some readers might appreciate being “spoken with” rather than “dictated to” as was Henry Fowler’s way).  However, in the TikTok age, it may prove the singer Taylor Swift (b 1989) is now the final arbitrator of the language’s squabbles.  In mid 2024, MS Swift released the album The Tortured Poets Department and while most (Swifties and others) focused on the music, some couldn’t help but notice what appeared to be the “missing apostrophe”.  However, whether or not it’s missing depends on how the title is read:  If it's a possessive form then one should appear but if “poets” is operating as descriptive modifier of “department” then none is required.  Understanding the distinction is easiest if the phrase is deconstructed and imagined as a department in a university which contains tortured poets; there morosely they sit for a time but they don’t “possess” the department; instead, tortured poets come and go and over generations the membership changes but the department endures.  In that sense, Ms Swift’s "Tortured Poets Department" is like a "Farmers Market" rather than a "driver’s license".  So, it’s really a matter of what Ms Swift intended and she seems a bit of a word nerd so it may be assumed she says what she means and means what she says.

Mutation

Mutation (pronounced myoo-tey-shuhn)

(1) In biology (also as “break”), a sudden departure from the parent type in one or more heritable characteristics, caused by a change in a gene or a chromosome.

(2) In biology, (also as “sport”), an individual, species, or the like, resulting from such a departure.

(3) The act or process of mutating; change; alteration.

(4) A resultant change or alteration, as in form or nature.

(5) In phonetics (in or of Germanic languages), the umlaut (the assimilatory process whereby a vowel is pronounced more like a following vocoid that is separated by one or more consonants).

(6) In structural linguistics (in or of Celtic languages), syntactically determined morphophonemic phenomena that affect initial sounds of words (the phonetic change in certain initial consonants caused by a preceding word).

(7) An alternative word for “mutant”

(8) In cellular biology & genetics, a change in the chromosomes or genes of a cell which, if occurring in the gametes, can affect the structure and development of all or some of any resultant off-spring; any heritable change of the base-pair sequence of genetic material.

(9) A physical characteristic of an individual resulting from this type of chromosomal change.

(10) In law, the transfer of title of an asset in a register.

(11) In ornithology, one of the collective nouns for the thrush (the more common forms being “hermitage” & “rash”)

1325–1375: From the Middle English mutacioun & mutacion (action or process of changing), from the thirteenth century Old French mutacion and directly from the Latin mūtātion- (stem of mūtātiō) (a changing, alteration, a turn for the worse), noun of action from past-participle stem of mutare (to change), from the primitive Indo-European root mei- (to change, go, move).  The construct can thus be understood as mutat(e) +ion.  Dating from 1818, the verb mutate (to change state or condition, undergo change) was a back-formation from mutation.  It was first used in genetics to mean “undergo mutation” in 1913.  The –ion suffix was from the Middle English -ioun, from the Old French -ion, from the Latin -iō (genitive -iōnis).  It was appended to a perfect passive participle to form a noun of action or process, or the result of an action or process. The use in genetics in the sense of “process whereby heritable changes in DNA arise” dates from 1894 (although the term "DNA" (deoxyribonucleic acid) wasn't used until 1938 the existence of the structure (though not its structural detail) was fist documented in 1869 after the identification of nuclein).  In linguistics, the term “i-mutation” was first used in 1874, following the earlier German form “i-umlaut”, the equivalent in English being “mutation”.  The noun mutagen (agent that causes mutation) was coined in 1946, the construct being muta(tion) + -gen.  The –gen suffix was from the French -gène, from the Ancient Greek -γενής (-genḗs).  It was appended to create a word meaning “a producer of something, or an agent in the production of something” and is familiar in the names of the chemical elements hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen.  From mutagen came the derive forms mutagenic, mutagenesis & mutagenize.  Mutation, mutationist & mutationism is a noun, mutability is a noun, mutable & mutant are nouns & adjectives, mutated & mutating are verbs & adjectives, mutational & mutationistic are adjective and mutationally is an adverb; the noun plural is mutations.  For whatever reasons, the adverb mutationistically seems not to exist.

In scientific use the standard abbreviation is mutat and forms such as nonmutation, remutation & unmutational (used both hyphenated and not) are created as required and there is even demutation (used in computer modeling).  In technical use, the number of derived forms is vast, some of which seem to enjoy some functional overlap although in fields like genetics and cellular biology, the need for distinction between fine details of process or consequence presumably is such that the proliferation may continue.  In science and linguistics, the derived forms (used both hyphenated and not) include animutation, antimutation, backmutation, e-mutation, ectomutation, endomutation, epimutation, extramutation, frameshift mutation, hard mutation, heteromutation, homomutation, hypermutation, hypomutation, i-mutation, intermutation, intramutation, intromutation, macromutation, macromutational, megamutation, mesomutation, micromutation, missense mutation, mixed mutation, multimutation, mutationless, mutation pressure, nasal mutation, neomutation, nonsense mutation, oncomutation, paramutation. Pentamutation, phosphomutation. point mutation, postmutation, premutation, radiomutation, retromutation, soft mutation, spirant mutation, stem mutation, stereomutation, ultramutation & vowel mutation.

Ginger, copper, auburn & chestnut are variations on the theme of red-headedness: Ranga Lindsay Lohan demonstrates the possibilities.

Red hair is the result of a mutation in the melanocortin 1 receptor (MC1R) gene responsible for producing the MC1R protein which plays a crucial role also in determining skin-tone. When the MC1R gene is functioning normally, it helps produce eumelanin, a type of melanin that gives hair a dark color.  However, a certain mutation in the MC1R gene leads to the production of pheomelanin which results in red hair.  Individuals with two copies of the mutated MC1R gene (one from each parent) typically have red hair, fair skin, and a higher sensitivity to ultraviolet (UV) light, a genetic variation found most often in those of northern & western European descent.

A mutation is a change in the structure of the genes or chromosomes of an organism and mutations occurring in the reproductive cells (such as an egg or sperm), can be passed from one generation to the next.  It appears most mutations occur in “junk DNA” and the orthodox view is these generally have no discernible effects on the survivability of an organism.  The term junk DNA was coined to describe those portions of an organism's DNA which do not encode proteins and were thought to have no functional purpose (although historically there may have been some).  The large volume of these “non-coding regions” surprised researchers when the numbers emerged because the early theories had predicted they would comprise a much smaller percentage of the genome.  The term junk DNA was intentionally dismissive and reflected the not unreasonable assumption the apparently redundant sequences were mere evolutionary “leftovers” without an extant biological function of any significance.

However, as advances in computing power have enabled the genome further to be explored, it’s been revealed that many of these non-coding regions do fulfil some purpose including: (1) A regulatory function: (the binary regulation of gene expression, influencing when, where, and how genes are turned on or off; (2) As superstructure: (Some regions contribute to the structural integrity of chromosomes (notably telomeres and centromeres); (3) In RNA (ribonucleic acid) molecules: Some non-coding DNA is transcribed into non-coding RNA molecules (such as microRNAs and long non-coding RNAs), which are involved in various cellular processes; (4) Genomic Stability: It’s now clear there are non-coding regions which contribute to the maintenance of genomic stability and the protection of genetic information.  Despite recent advances, the term junk DNA is still in use in mapping but is certainly misleading for those not immersed in the science; other than in slang, in academic use and technical papers, “non-coding DNA” seems now the preferred term and where specific functions have become known, these regions are described thus.

There’s also now some doubt about the early assumptions that of the remaining mutations, the majority have harmful effects and only a minority operate to increase an organism's ability to survive, something of some significance because a mutation which benefits a species may evolve by means of natural selection into a trait shared by some or all members of the species.  However, there have been suggestions the orthodox view was (at least by extent) influenced by the slanting of the research effort towards diseases, syndromes and other undesirable conditions and that an “identification bias” may thus have emerged.  So the state of the science now is that there are harmful & harmless mutations but there are also mutations which may appear to have no substantive effect yet may come to be understood as significant, an idea which was explored in an attempt to understand why some people found to be inflected with a high viral-load of SARS-Cov-2 (the virus causing Covid-19) remained asymptomatic.

In genetics, a mutation is a change in the DNA sequence of an organism and it seems they can occur in any part of the DNA and can vary in size and type.  Most associated with errors during DNA replication, mutations can also be a consequence of viral infection or exposure to certain chemicals or radiation, or as a result of viral infections.  The classification of mutations has in recent years been refined to exist in three categories:

(1) By the Effect on DNA Sequence:  These are listed as Point Mutations which are changes in a single nucleotide and include (1.1) Substitutions in which one base pair is replaced by another, (1.2) Insertions which describe the addition of one or more nucleotide pairs and (1.3) Deletions, the removal of one or more nucleotide pairs.

(2) By the Effect on Protein Sequence: These are listed as: (2.1) Silent Mutations which do not change the amino acid sequence of the protein, (2.2) Missense Mutations in which there is a change one amino acid in the protein, potentially affecting its function, (2.3) Nonsense Mutations which create a premature stop codon, leading to a truncated and usually non-functional protein and (2.4) Frameshift Mutations which result from insertions or deletions that change the reading frame of the gene, often leading to a completely different and non-functional protein.

(3) By the Effect on Phenotype: These are listed as (3.1) Beneficial Mutations which provide some advantage to the organism, (3.2) Neutral Mutations which have no apparent significant effect on the organism's fitness and (3.3) Deleterious Mutations which are harmful to the organism and can cause diseases or other problems.

(4) By the Mechanism of Mutation: These are listed as (4.1) Spontaneous Mutations which occur naturally without any external influence, due often to errors in DNA replication and (4.2) Induced Mutations which result from exposure to mutagens environmental factors such as chemicals or radiation that can cause changes in DNA),

Because of the association with disease, genetic disorders and disruptions to normal biological functions, in the popular imagination mutations are thought undesirable.  They are however a crucial part of the evolutionary process and life on this planet as it now exists would not be possible without the constant process of mutation which has provided the essential genetic diversity within populations and has driven the adaptation and evolution of species.  Although it will probably never be known if life on earth started and died out before beginning the evolutionary chain which endures to this day, as far as is known, everything now alive (an empirically, that means in the entire universe) ultimately has a single common ancestor.  Mutations have played a part in the diversity which followed and of all the species which once have inhabited earth, a tiny fraction remain, the rest extinct.

Nuclear-induced mutations

Especially since the first A-Bombs were used in 1945, the idea of “mutant humans” being created by the fallout from nuclear war or power-plants suffering a meltdown have been a staple for writers of science fiction (SF) and producers of horror movies, the special-effects and CGI (computer generated graphics) crews ever imaginative in their work.  The fictional works are disturbing because radiation-induced human mutations are not common but radiation can cause changes in DNA, leading to mutations and a number of factors determine the likelihood and extent of damage.  The two significant types of radiation are: (1) ionizing radiation which includes X-rays, gamma rays, and particles such as alpha and beta particles.  Ionizing radiation has enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, creating ions and directly can damage DNA or create reactive oxygen species that cause indirect damage.  In high doses, ionizing radiation can increase the risk of cancer and genetic mutations and (2) non-ionizing radiation which includes ultraviolet (UV) light, visible light, microwaves, and radiofrequency radiation.  Because this does not possess sufficient energy to ionize atoms or molecules, which there is a risk of damage to DNA (seen most typically in some types of skin cancer), but the risk of deep genetic mutations is much lower than that of ionizing radiation.  The factors influencing the extent of damage include the dose, duration of exposure, the cell type(s) affected, a greater or lesser genetic predisposition and age.

Peter Dutton (b 1970; leader of the opposition and leader of the Australian Liberal Party since May 2022) announces the Liberal Party's new policy advocating the construction of multiple nuclear power-plants in Australia.

The prosthetic used in the digitally-altered image (right) was a discarded proposal for the depiction of Lord Voldemort in the first film version of JK Rowling's (b 1965) series of Harry Potter children's fantasy novels; it used a Janus-like two-faced head.  It's an urban myth Mr Dutton auditioned for the part when the first film was being cast but was rejected as being "too scary".  If ever there's another film, the producers might reconsider and should his career in politics end (God forbid), he could bring to Voldemort the sense of menacing evil the character has never quite achieved.  Interestingly, despite many opportunities, Mr Dutton has never denied being a Freemason.

On paper, while not without challenges, Australia does enjoy certain advantages in making nuclear part of the energy mix: (1)  With abundant potential further to develop wind and solar generation, the nuclear plants would need only to provide the baseload power required when renewable sources were either inadequate or unavailable; (2) the country would be self-sufficient in raw uranium ore (although it has no enrichment capacity) and (3) the place is vast and geologically stable so in a rational world it would be nominated as the planet's repository of spent nuclear fuel and other waste.  The debate as it unfolds is likely to focus on other matters and nobody images any such plant can in the West be functioning in less than twenty-odd years (the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) gets things done much more quickly) so there's plenty of time to squabble and plenty of people anxious to join in this latest theatre of the culture wars.  Even National Party grandee Barnaby Joyce (b 1967; thrice (between local difficulties) deputy prime minister of Australia 2016-2022) has with alacrity become a champion of all things nuclear (electricity, submarines and probably bombs although, publicly, he seems not to have discussed the latter).  The National Party has never approved of solar panels and wind turbines because they associate them with feminism, seed-eating vegans, homosexuals and other symbols of all which is wrong with modern society.  While in his coal-black heart Mr Joyce's world view probably remains as antediluvian as ever, he can sniff the political wind in a country now beset by wildfires, floods and heatwaves and talks less of the beauty of burning fossil fuels.  Still, in the wake of Mr Dutton's announcement, conspiracy theorists have been trying to make Mr Joyce feel better, suggesting the whole thing is just a piece of subterfuge designed to put a spanner in the works of the transition to renewable energy generation, the idea being to protect the financial positions of those who make much from fossil fuels, these folks being generous donors to party funds and employers of "helpful" retired politicians in lucrative and undemanding roles.

Tincture

Tincture (pronounced tingk-cher)

(1) In pharmacology, a solution of alcohol or of alcohol and water, containing animal, vegetable, or chemical drugs (an alcohol solution of a non-volatile medicine (obsolete)).

(2) A slight infusion, as of some element or quality; the dipping of something into a liquid to gain to color.

(3) A trace; a smack or smattering; tinge.

(4) In heraldry, any of the colors, metals, or furs used for the fields, charges etc, of an escutcheon or achievement of arms.

(5) A pigment or other substance that colours or dyes; specifically, a pigment used as a cosmetic (obsolete).

(6) To impart a tint or color to; tinge.

(7) To imbue or infuse with something.

(8) A slight flavour, aroma, or trace

(9) In medicine as "tincture of steel", an alcoholic solution of the chloride of iron (obsolete).

(10) A small flaw, an imperfection; a blemish or stain (now rare except as a literary device).

(11) In Christianity, a synonym of baptism (based on the idea of being "dipped into or sprinkled with Holy Water". 

(12) A (small) alcoholic drink (used humorously).

(13) In alchemy, an immaterial substance or spiritual principle which was thought capable of being instilled into physical things; also, the essence or spirit of something; a material essence thought to be capable of extraction from a substance.

(14) In chemistry, the part of a substance thought to be essential, finer, and/or more volatile, which could be extracted in a solution; also, the process of obtaining this.

1350-1400: From the Late Middle English tincture (dye, pigment; colour, hue, tint; process of colouring or dyeing; medicinal ointment or salve (perhaps one discolouring the skin); use of a medicinal tincture; (alchemy) transmutation of base metals into gold; ability to cause such transmutation; substance supposed to cause such transmutation)), the construct being the Latin tīnct(ūra) (act of dyeing) + the Middle English -ure (the suffix indicating an action or a process and the means or result of that action or process).  The construct of tīnctūra was tīnc(tus) (coloured, tinged; dipped in; impregnated with; treated”) + -tūra (the suffix forming action nouns expressing activities or results) while tīnctus was the perfect passive participle of tingō (to colour, dye, tinge; to dip (in), immerse; to impregnate (with); to moisten, wet; to smear), ultimately from the primitive Indo-European teng- (to dip; to soak), (source also of the Old High German dunkon (to soak) and the Greek tengein (to moisten).  It was cognate with the Ancient Greek τέγγω (téngō) and from the Latin Modern English has picked up tint, taint and tainture (an obsolete synonym of tincture).  Tincture is a noun & verb, tinct, tincturation, tincturing & tinction are nouns, verbs & adjectives, tinctured is a verb & adjective, tinctorial & tinctorious are adjectives and tinctorially is an adverb; the noun plural is tinctures.  The noun tinctura is listed by most dictionaries as obsolete but it is still in use poetically.

The fifteenth century use by apothecaries to refer to medicinal ointments (the assumption by historians this use was associated particularly with those used to discolor the skin or from being imbued with the essential principles of the substance).  In pre-modern medicine the meaning lingered, the idea of a tincture being a “solution of medicine in a mixture of alcohol” recorded in the professional texts in the 1640s.  In fashion, parchment preparation and then still rare applications such as wallpaper, the word was used to describe a “process of coloring" from early in the fifteenth century.  The verb was derived from the noun and came into use in the 1610s in the sense of “imbue with color”.  Tincturation (preparation of a tincture) was in use by the mid nineteenth century while tinction has been used to mean “preparation for dyeing, coloring matter ready for use” since the 1890s.

Not following the rules: The Lohan family crest.

In heraldry, the “rule of tincture” (described as “a design philosophy”) is the convention “metal should not be put on metal, nor colour on colour”.  There appears to be no historical basis for the emergence of this rule in the early fifteenth century and the favored modern explanation is that imposing it simply made it easier for the craftsmen of the era, it being technically challenging to inlay metals in metals, the practical point being a high wastage rate of expensive materials (the client paying only for the finished product).  However, the rule took hold rather in the manner the strictures in some religions (such as prohibitions on the consumption of shellfish or pig products) began as public health measures in the pre-refrigeration age endured to become orthodox articles of faith.  Centuries later, although the application of the “rule” began to be relaxed, such was the enduring influence that artisans' guilds formally codified a list of “exemptions” from the rule.

Meaning shift

The historic meaning of tincture (a synonym for dye or pigment) is now entirely obsolete; a tincture is now a subtle shade, tint or variation of an original colour or a smattering of another.  It can be applied to any field vaguely analogous such as tastes or aromas and can be used pejoratively to suggest someone’s knowledge of something might be less than advertised.  It has also found a niche is recipes printed in up-market publications as a word to use instead of "hint".

Lindsay Lohan tinctures: copper and auburn variations of red.

The Dendrobates tinctorius “Giant Orange” (the common name the "Dyeing Poison Dart Frog" (based on the early belief natives used brightly colored frogs to dye feathers & fabrics)).  Described by retailers as a “great beginner frog” (the reason for that presumably understood by collectors) and “best kept in pairs”, the RRP (recommended retail price) is US$59.99.

The adjective tinctorious dates from the late eighteenth century and appears first to have been used of colorful plants.  Even in horticulture it has become rare but an echo survives in the Dendrobates Tinctorius, a frog much prized by collectors and photographers for its striking colors and patterns.  Unsurprisingly referred to usually as "tincs" (the standard abbreviation of "tincture") Dendrobates Tinctorius are one of the largest species of poison dart frogs, although in global terms still hardly large, the largest some 2 inches (50 mm) length. They are native to the rainforests of South America and appear in dramatic color combinations including hues of blues, blacks, yellows and oranges.  They can safely be kept by hobbyests because in capativity they're not poisonous, their toxicity in the wild by virtue of their preferred diet of small invertebrates, not consumed in a captive environment.  Prices of adults in the most desired color mixes can exceed US$120.

Brunette

Brunette (pronounced broo-net)

(1) Of the hair (particularly females), dark in color, tending to black.

(2) Of a person (less commonly), having dark hair and, often, dark eyes and darkish or olive skin.

(3) A person (particularly if female), with dark hair.

1660s: From the French brunette, the feminine of brunet (of a woman, in complexion, having a brownish tone to the skin and hair), from the Old French brunet (brownish, brown-haired, dark-complexioned), the feminine diminutive of the twelfth century brun (brown), of West Germanic origin, from the Proto-Germanic brunaz, from the primitive Indo-European root bher- (bright; brown); a doublet of burnet.  The now familiar use as a noun (woman with dark hair and eyes and of a dark complexion) emerged in the 1710s and the metathesized form (the Old French burnete) was the source of the surname Burnett.  Burnete was a high quality woolen dyed-cloth of superior quality and originally a dark brown.  The alternative spelling brunet is now rare, even in the US.  Brunette is a noun & adjective and brunetteness is a noun; the noun plural is brunettes.  The adjective brunetteish is non-standard.

Misty was a weekly British comic magazine for girls which, unusually, was found also to enjoy a significant male readership.  Published UK house Fleetway, it existed only between 1978-1980 although Misty Annual appeared until 1986.  The cover always featured the eponymous, raven haired beauty.

Dictionaries vary but little in the rage of definitions offered of brunette, most entries something like that in the Oxford English Dictionary (OED): “noun: a woman or girl with dark brown hair”.  In the US, the spelling brunet is listed not as an alternative spelling but a variant, Merriam-Webster noting the distinction between the two as something like the convention of use governing blonde (of females) and blond (of males), brunette being: “a person having brown or black hair and often a relatively dark complexion (spelled brunet when used of a boy or man and usually brunette when used of a girl or woman).  Thus, at least some authoritative sources acknowledge there’s been a shift in the meaning of brunette from the “dark brown hair” inherited from the French to a range of dark shades, extending from brown even to black, essentially all those not blonde, red-headed, grey or white.  So brunette does some heavy-lifting, presumably because there’s no noun for those with true black hair although there are adjectives including “raven-haired” and “jet-black” and of course they’re in the spectrum of those called “dark-haired”.  Suggestions English speakers adopt noirette (black-haired woman) seem to have been ignored and the idea use of the French noiraud & noiraude (the masculine & feminine forms meaning “swarthy” was a good idea didn’t survive the revelation the terms were used mostly by farmers of black cattle.

Melanotrichousness: In English, as it applies to hair, brunette has enjoyed a meaning shift from "dark brown" to a spectrum extending even to pure black and now really just denotes "not blonde or a red-head".  Natural red-head Lindsay Lohan illustrates some of the range. 

If one insists the original meaning must be observed, brunette is thus often used with imprecision but there’s clearly been a bit of a meaning-shift and for most purposes the raven haired are now often lumped with the brunettes, something which seems not much to disturb them.  Raven-haired though is probably preferable because it’s so poetic but it seems now to be used only in literature which, given it’s well understood, seems strange but perhaps it has suffered by being so popular in fantasy novels, a genre of which not all approve.  Coal-black (the blackest black) really wasn’t appealing even before climate change made the substance unfashionable although pitch-black might be worse still, pitch a dark, highly viscous material remaining in still after distilling crude oil and tar.  Jet-black is interesting in that it’s both often used (and more often of stuff other than hair) and misunderstood, most apparently thinking there’s some connection to jet-engines.  Jet-black describes a color which is very black and almost wholly devoid of light reflection and the reference is actually to a type of mineraloid known as jet (a black or dark brown fossilized coal-like material formed from the remains of wood that has undergone a specific type of decay under high pressure).  The mineral has for thousands of years been used for decorative and functional applications, such as jewelry and ornamentation, much prized for the striking color (technically an absence of color) and the shiny surface achieved when polished.

A brunette with blue eyes, rendered by a GAI (generative artificial intelligence) engine.  In real life (IRL), the natural combination of black hair & blue eyes is rare although the look can be achieved with either (or both if need be) hair dye or colored contact lens.  With GAI, anything is possible.

So it’s all a question of what one wants to achieve: “brunette” has wide utility because it’s understood by all to mean “not a blonde or red-head”, phrases like “raven-haired beauty” will always have a certain appeal and if one needs to be more precise about brunettes there’s “auburn”, “chestnut” or even just “brown” white the truly black can be called “jet black”.  One with black hair may be said to be melanotrichous, the word meaning “having or characterized by black pigmentation”, from melanosis (abnormal deposition of melanin in tissue), the construct being melan-, from the Ancient Greek μέλᾱς (mélās) (black, dark) + -osis.  The –osis suffix was from the Ancient Greek -ωσις (-ōsis) (state, abnormal condition, or action), the construct being -όω (-óō) (added to a noun or adjective to make a verb with a causative or factitive meaning) + -σις (-sis) (added to verb stems to form abstract nouns or nouns of action, process, or result).  In pathology, the suffix appended to create a word describing a functional disease or condition).

Monochrome

Monochrome (pronounced mon-uh-krohm)

(1) A painting or drawing in different shades of a single color (now rare).

(2) The art or technique of producing such a painting or drawing.

(3) The state or condition of being painted, decorated, etc, in shades of a single color.

(4) A “black-and-white” photograph or transparency (an image reproduced in tones of gray.

(5) By analogy, something devoid of any distinctive or stimulating characteristics; bland or colourless.

(6) In ceramics, a ceramic glaze of a single colour; an object so glazed.

1655-1665: From the Medieval Latin monochrōma (painting or drawing done in different tints of a single color) from the Ancient Greek μονόχρωμος (monókhrōmos or monokhrōmatos) (of the one colour), the construct being μόνος (mónos) (one; single; alone), from the primitive Indo-European root men- (small, isolated) + χρῶμα (khrôma) (genitive khrōmatos) (colour; complexion, skin).  In Classical Latin, the most-used form was monochromos (literally “having one color”).  The sense it’s understood in photography dates from 1940 when (presumably almost instantly), the verbal shorthand became “mono”, exactly the same pattern of use when the need arose to distinguish between color printers and those using only black consumables.  The word was used as an adjective after 1849 although monochromatic (of one color, consisting of light of one wavelength and probably based either on the French monochromatique or the Ancient Greek monokhrōmatos) had been used thus since at least 1807 (presumably it pre-dated this because the adverb monochromatically is documented since 1784.  The alternative forms are both self-explanatory: unicolour used usually single solids and monotint, rare and used mostly as a technical term in art-production where, properly, it describes a reproduction of a multi-color image using just shades of a single color.  Monochrome is a noun & adjective, monochromaticity, monochromy & monochromist are nouns, monochromic is an adjective and monochromatically is an adverb.

Monochromic images of Lindsay Lohan smoking.

The classic mono laser printer of the late twentieth century: Hewlett-Packard LaserJet III (1990) in the HP Museum.

In the narrow technical sense, a monochromic image is composed of one colour or values of one colour (technically also called a monotint).  In modern use, a linguistic paradox exists because an image consisting of just one colour (eg red, yellow, blue etc) is not usually described as monochrome yet most images rendered in multiple gradations of gray-scale (just about any image described as black & white) almost always are.  For most purposes, in casual use, monochrome versus colour is a binary describing both the devices used in the production process and the output.  There’s also a scientific quirk.  Monochromatic light is electromagnetic radiation of a single frequency but, no source of this exists because that would demand a wave of infinite duration which the laws of physics don’t permit.

In fashion, the monochromatic is a place on the continuum of tonality, the effect at its most dramatic when tied to a model’s skin-tone, hair and eye-color.  In truth, what matters most is sometimes less how she appears in the flesh than how well the effect translates to photographs, something complicated by certain combinations suffering under natural light and suited only to artificial environments.  For that reason, when the most uncompromising monochrome ensembles are seen, there’s always the suspicion filters and post-production have played a part.

Lindsay Lohan at the Christian Siriano Fall 2023 show, New York Fashion Week, February 2023.

Slurring effortlessly into the auburn hair, the satin two-piece used shades of copper, burnt orange and peach, the spectrum not disturbed by anything intrusive, a shimmering peach-infused copper eye shadow with flared lashes blended by chocolate eye pencil, a luminescent focus achieved with satin glossed lips while apricot blush and bronzer was applied with an austerity which many should emulate; all part of the monochromatic moment.

Manifold

Manifold (pronounced man-uh-fohld)

(1) Of many kinds; numerous and varied:

(2) Having numerous different parts, elements, features, forms, etc.

(3) A copy or facsimile, as of something written, such as is made by manifolding (obsolete except in historic reference).

(4) Any thin, inexpensive paper for making carbon copies on a typewriter (archaic).

(5) In internal combustion engines, the part (1) of the exhaust system attached directly to the exhaust ports and (2) of the induction system attached directly to the inlet ports.

(6) In mathematics, a topological space that locally looks like the ordinary Euclidean space.

(7) The third stomach of a ruminant animal (an omasum) (US (mostly south of the Mason-Dixon Line)), usually in the plural.

(8) In computer graphics, a polygon-mesh representing the continuous closed surface of a solid object.

Pre 1000: From the Middle English adjective manifold (many times, in multiplied number or quantity), from the West Saxon & Old English manigfeald & manigfealde (monigfald was the Anglian variant) (various, varied in appearance, complicated; numerous, abundant), the construct being manig (many) + feald (fold).  From the Proto-Germanic managafalþaz came the common Germanic compound (the Middle High German manecvalt (manifold), the Icelandic margfaldr (multiple), the Old Frisian manichfald, the Middle Dutch menichvout & menigvoudig (various), the Danish mangefold (multiple), the German mannigfalt, the Swedish mångfalt (diversity) and the Gothic managfalþs), it’s thought perhaps a loan-translation of the Latin multiplex (multiply; having many forms) and the Old English also had a verbal form, manigfealdian (to multiply, abound, increase, extend), the meaning later extended to (the now obsolete) “make multiple copies of by a single operation”.  The adverb manigfealdlice (in various ways, manifoldly), was derived from the adjective.

The noun manifold was applied to the mechanical device (“a pipe or chamber, usually of cast metal, with several outlets”) from the mid-1850s and was a short-form (from engineer’s slang) of “manifold pipe” which had been in use since 1845 which originally was applied to the types of musical instruments mentioned in the Old Testament.  The familiar use to describe the components which are part of an internal combustion engine’s intake & exhaust systems dates from 1904 and applied initially to the pipe between a carburetor and the combustion chambers; the existence of exhaust manifolds was noted the following year.

Of manifold sins and wickedness: Lindsay Lohan smoking and smoldering.

 Among those first translating the Bible into English, manifold was a popular word and few phrases more concisely encapsulate the Church’s view of us than “manifold sins and wickedness”.  In the Book of Common Prayer (1549). the Church of England helpfully provided a general confession for those who knew they were wicked sinners (and of presumably greater significance knew that God knew) but had neither the time nor desire to list them all.  Once uttered, it invited God’s forgiveness.  The Book of Common Prayer became controversial within the more liberal factions of the Anglican communion because its more exacting demands were thought to be uninviting to a society which was changing while the Church was not.  However, despite many revisions (including some regionally exclusive to parts of the old colonial empire), sins and wickedness remain manifold in most editions. 

The General Confession from the Book of Common Prayer (1662 edition)

Almighty God, Father of our Lord Jesus Christ, maker of all things, judge of all men: We acknowledge and bewail our manifold sins and wickedness, which we, from time to time, most grievously have committed, by thought, word and deed, against thy Divine Majesty, provoking most justly thy wrath and indignation against us.

We do earnestly repent, and are heartily sorry for these our misdoings; the remembrance of them is grievous unto us; the burden of them is intolerable.

Have mercy upon us, have mercy upon us, most merciful Father; for thy Son our Lord Jesus Christ's sake, forgive us all that is past; and grant that we may ever hereafter serve and please thee in newness of life, to the honour and glory of thy name; through Jesus Christ our Lord.  Amen.

The Duesenberg manifolds

1935 Duesenberg Supercharged J (SJ) dual cowl phaeton with coachwork by LaGrande, the lines made more rakish still by the use of a Rollston V-shaped windshield.

The Duesenberg Model J was admired for it power, exclusivity, speed and coachwork but one aspect which always draws the eye of nerds is the exhaust manifold.  The look most associated with the marquee is that with four flexible pipes emerging from the right side of the bodywork, a motif used not only by Duesenberg’s corporate stablemates Cord and Auburn but also, if less extravagantly, by Mercedes-Benz where it was a feature of many of the supercharged cars of the 1920s and 1930s.

1935 Duesenberg Model J Special Speedster (SSJ)

The official factory designation was always “Model J” and their documents referred to the supercharged cars as the “Supercharged J” but the latter is known universally as the SJ.  The public imagination was further stimulated in 1935 when a short wheelbase version of the SJ was announced.  The factory referred to it as the “Special Speedster” but people preferred SSJ although it was a rare sight as only two were produced before Duesenberg finally succumbed to the effects of the Great Depression.

Of manifold shapes and weaknesses

The original manifolds used with the Model J were a variety of eight-port (8-into-1 in motorcycle parlance) units made from monel (a high-strength alloy of nickel, and copper, blended with carbon, iron & manganese) which engineers called “sewer pipes” (in modern parlance they’re known also as “dump pipes”).  In terms of fluid dynamics they were efficient but, cast in one piece they were prone to cracking as the torsional forces to which they were subject tended to find the weakest points so they were redesigned as two-piece units (4-into-1) which better distributed the loadings.  This improved durability though the propensity for the cast monel to crack wasn’t wholly eliminated and the the eight-pipe design made difficult the installation of the vertically installed supercharger hardware, added to which the heat-soak from the manifold was undesirable so the system was redesigned to used siamesed ports which fed the distinctive four external exhausts.

Memel 8-into-1 "sewer-pipe" manifold on 1934 Duesenberg SJ with the centrally-mounted supercharger fitted between cylinders 4 & 5 (left), the two piece (2 x 4-into-2) monel sewer-pipe manifolds in 1934 Duesenberg J (centre) and 8-into-1 sewer-pipe emerging through the engine-compartment right-side panel (right).  The use of the apple-green color for engine components was a signature feature of the brand.

The externally-routed pipe-work is regarded as one of the most charismatic features of the big Duesenbergs and still it’s associated by many with the presence of a supercharger but some of the SJs used the monel manifolds and, for the most flamboyant, the factory anyway offered the look as a retro-fit option for US$1000 (at a time when a new Ford V8 could be purchased for US$505).  Because of the fragility of the monel pipes and the fashion for the external ducting, only a handful of supercharged cars with the original manifolds are thought to survive.  To those who make a fetish of intricacy, the monel sewer-pipe manifolds are thought the most photogenic of all.

Manifold porn: Chrysler's Slant Six was an engine of modest specification and expectations but typical of the corporation in those days, the basic engineering was fundamentally sound and in a variety of displacements (170 cubic inch (2.8 litre, 1959-1969), 198 (3.2, 1970-1974) & 225 (3.7 1960-2000), it was produced between 1959-2000 making it one of the US industry's longest-serving powerplants.  One unusual aspect of the Slant Six's design was the block was canted to the right at a 30^o which meant there was much space available to the left and a range of intake manifolds followed, some of which remain available to this day.  Using variations of the Sonoramic tuning, manifolds were produced for single, two & four barrel carburetors and between 1965-1968, Chrysler's Argentine operation produced the Slant Six in a version with twin single barrel carburetors.  The use of the properties of fluid dynamics to gain power or torque as desired quickly was adopted by the industry as an engineering orthodoxy.