Bottomage

Bottomage (pronounced bot-uh m-ree)

In the marine insurance division of Admiralty law, a contract, of the nature of a mortgage, by which the owner of a ship borrows money to make a voyage, pledging the title of the ship as security.

1615-1625: From Middle English as as an addition to Admiralty law, modelled on the Dutch bodemerij, equivalent to bodem (bottom; hull of a ship) + -erij (–ry).  Bottom is from the Middle English botme & bottom (ground, soil, foundation, lowest or deepest part of anything), from the Old English botm & bodan (bottom, foundation; ground, abyss), from the Proto-Germanic buthm, butmaz & budmaz, from the primitive Indo-European bhudhno (bottom).  It was cognate with Old Frisian boden (soil), the Old Norse botn, the Dutch bodem, the Old High German & German Boden (ground, earth, soil), the Icelandic botn and the Danish bund and was related also to the Irish bonn (sole (of foot)), the Ancient Greek πυθμήν (puthmḗn or pythmen) (bottom of a cup or jar), the Sanskrit बुध्न (budhna) (bottom), the Avestan buna, the Persian بن‎ (bon) (bottom) and the Latin fundus (bottom, piece of land, farm), from which, via French, English gained “fund”.  The suffix -age was from the Middle English -age, from the Old French -age, from the Latin -āticum.  Cognates include the French -age, the Italian -aggio, the Portuguese -agem, the Spanish -aje & Romanian -aj.  It was used to form nouns (1) with the sense of collection or appurtenance, (2) indicating a process, action, or a result, (3) of a state or relationship, (4) indicating a place, (5) indicating a charge, toll, or fee, (6) indicating a rate & (7) of a unit of measure.  Bottamage is a noun; the noun plural is bottomages.

The sense of bottom as “posterior of a person (the sitting part)” is from 1794; the “verb to reach the bottom of” from 1808 and the expression “bottom dollar (the last dollar one has) is from 1857.  The meaning "fundamental character or essence" is from the 1570s and the variation “to get to the bottom of some matter” is from 1773; “bottoms up” as the call to finish one's drink is from 1875 while to do or feel something from “the bottom of (one's) heart” is from 1540s.  The bottom-feeder, originally a technical term in the classification of fishes, dates from 1866, the figurative sense ("one of the lowest status or rank" or an "opportunist who seeks quick profit usually at the expense of others or from their misfortune") noted from 1919.  Bottomage also sometimes appears in Australia as an alternative spelling of "bottom-age" (used in aged based sporting competitions to list the oldest age permitted to participate).

On the bottom.

Bottomage (sometimes referred to as bottomry), is a financing arrangement in maritime law whereby the owner or master of a ship borrows money “upon the bottom (or keel) of it” with an agreement to forfeit the ship itself to the creditor if the loan and interest is not paid at the time nominated, after the ship's safe return.  The contracts tended to be executed when a ship in a foreign port needed emergency repairs and it wasn’t possible to arrange funds in other ways.  Now rare because developments in maritime law discounted the bottomage bond's priority as against other liens and improvements in communications made international money transfers more efficient.  Hardly used since the nineteenth century and now of only historic interest.

It was an unusual, hybrid form of financing and one almost wholly peculiar to the pre-modern sea-trade.  It wasn’t a conventional loan because the lender accepted part of the risk, ships sinking not infrequently.  Nor was it insurance because there was nothing which explicitly secured the risk to the merchant's goods.  Bottomage can be thought of as a type of futures contract in that the insurer has purchased an option on the venture's final profit.  The risk being greater, a bottomage bond giving no remedy to the lender against the owners of the ship or cargo personally, rates were always much higher than the historic trading average of around 12%.

Doctors' Commons (1808), the High Court of Admiralty in session, Designed and etched by Thomas Rowlandson (1757–1827) & Auguste Charles Pugin (1768–1832 London), aquatint by John Bluck (1791–1832), Lambeth Palace Library collection, London.

The Admiralty Court in England dates from the mid- fourteenth century and its creation appears linked to the victory of Edward III’s (1312–1377; King of England 1327-1377) fleet in the battle of Sluys in 1340, one of the opening engagements of the Hundred Years' War (1737-1453).  A specialist tribunal which appears to have been charged with keeping peace at sea and dealing with piracy, as the High Court of Admiralty it developed its own distinct procedures and practices and was attended by a specialist group of solicitors (called proctors), its advocates educated in civil rather than common law; those trained only in common law not permitted to appear.

Bottamage re-imagined, Lindsay Lohan at the beach.

The advocates of the Admiralty Court were all Doctors of Law and were variously described as belonging to the College of Advocates, the College of Civilians or the Society of Doctors' Commons and specialized in ecclesiastical and civil law.  They were admitted to practice by the Dean of Arches who served the Archbishop of Canterbury and, practicing from Doctors’ Commons, cluster of buildings on Knightrider Street between St Paul’s cathedral and the north bank of the Thames they were most concerned with Admiralty and Church law although the advocates also verified and stored documents such as wills and marriage and divorce certificates.  The Doctors’ Commons was unusual in that while it resembled a modern Inn of Court in that it housed a library, a dining hall and rooms from which lawyers practiced, it also contained a court-room where the Admiralty Judge sat.  The arrangement persisted until the reforms of the Victorian Judicature Acts (1873-1875), the College of Advocates abolished in 1865 and the High Court of Admiralty transferred to became part of the unified High Court in 1875 although the tradition of a specialist Admiralty Judge and a specialist Admiralty Bar continues to this day.  In the US, one unique quirk of admiralty courts seemed to one lawyer to offer a possibility, the argument being a judgement should be set aside because the flag hanging in the courtroom didn't have the traditional fringe and thus was not properly constituted.  This the judge rejected and no attempt was made to seek leave to appeal.

The symbol of the Admiralty Court is the Admiralty Oar, traditionally displayed in court when a trial is in progress.

After the passage of the Judicature Acts, Admiralty jurisdiction moved to the newly created division of Divorce, Probate and Admiralty, referred to within the profession as the 3W (wives, wills & wrecks) and this lasted until the 1970 Administration of Justice Act which shifted divorce to the Family Division and probate to Chancery.  The Admiralty Court became part of the Queen’s Bench Division and claims are now dealt with by one of its two judges: the Admiralty Judge and the Admiralty Registrar, the arrest and release of ships handled by the Admiralty Marshal.

Admiralty

Admiralty (pronounced ad-mer-uhl-tee)

(1) In military use, the office or jurisdiction of an admiral.

(2) In military use, the officials or the department of state having charge of naval affairs (not all of whom needed to be admirals); it was analogous with an army's general staff and an air force's air staff.

(3) In the UK, the building in which the lords of the admiralty, in England, transact business.

(4) In law, the branch dealing with maritime law; a court dealing with maritime questions (In England, when jurisdiction was under the division of Divorce, Probate & Admiralty, the lawyers' slang was “wives, wills & wrecks”); the system of jurisprudence of admiralty courts.

(5) In (historic) architecture, a frequent descriptor (Admiralty House, Admiralty Arch etc).

1300–1350: A compound word Admiral + -ty, from the Middle English amiralty, from the French amirauté, from the older form amiralté (office of admiral), from the Late Latin admīrālitās.  The best known sense, “naval branch of the English executive" dates from the early-fifteenth century, root of the word being admiral.  Admiral emerged circa 1200 as amiral & admirail (Saracen commander or chieftain) from the Old French amiral & amirail (Saracen military commander; any military commander) ultimately from medieval Arabic amīr (military commander) probably via the Medieval Latin use of the word for "Muslim military leader".  The suffix –ty is from the Middle English -te, borrowed from the Old French -te, from the Latin -tātem, accusative masculine singular of –tās; an alternative form of –ity, it was used to form abstract nouns from adjectives.  The first English admiral to appear in the records appears to have been Admiral of the Fleet of the Cinque Ports, Gerard Allard of Winchelsea, a royal appointment in 1300.  The Arabic amīr was later Englished as emir.  In another example of Medieval error, because in Arabic use, amīr is constantly followed by -al- in all such titles, amīr-al- was assumed by Christian writers to be a substantive word and variously Latinized.  The process thus was a shortening of the Arabic أَمِير اَلبَحْر‎ (ʾamīr al-baḥr) (commander of the fleet; literally “sea commander”) and the additional -d- is probably from the influence of the otherwise unconnected Latin admirable (admīrābilis).  For those stalkers who take selfies at locations used in movies (Instagram made this niche), the The Ritz-Carlton, Marina del Rey (listed as the only waterside hotel in Los Angeles with a Five Diamond rating from the AAA) is at 4375 Admiralty Way in Marina del Rey.  It has appeared in a number of productions (film & television), notably Lindsay Lohan's remake of The Parent Trap (1998).  Admiralty & admiral are nouns; the noun plural is plural admiralties.  When used as a proper noun (thus the initial upper case), in Royal Navy use, Admiralty referred (1) the historical naval bases established in the Far East: (1) HMS Tamar (Hong Kong) and (2) HMS Sembawang (Singapore).

Admiralty Arch, London.

An island rather than a continental power and later an empire, for England, the navy assumed an importance in foreign policy standing armies never did and the Royal Navy’s high command, the Admiralty, was for centuries entangled in both military and political matters.  The Admiralty no longer exists, absorbed in 1964, like the high commands of the other services, into the newly created Ministry of Defence.  Over the centuries, the structure of the Admiralty evolved as technology changed, threats and alliances came and went, budgets waxed and waned, political vicissitudes always hovering.  As a bureaucracy, the Admiralty has been staffed by a bewildering array of offices and titles including board members, presidents, sea lords, secretaries, civil lords, controllers, comptrollers, accountants-general, directors-general, storekeepers-general, surveyors, deputy chiefs, vice chiefs & assistant chiefs but in its final incarnation, under a First Lord of the Admiralty (a minister for the navy who sat in parliament and was thus political head of the navy) there were five admirals, known as the sea lords (of which there were eight lords during World War II; things were busy then).  The sea lords each enjoyed a sphere of responsibility for naval operations:

The First Sea Lord (later First Sea Lord and Chief of the Naval Staff), directed naval strategy in wartime and was responsible for planning, operations and intelligence, for the distribution of the Fleet and for its fighting efficiency.  He was the military head of the Navy.

The Second Sea Lord (later Second Sea Lord and Chief of Naval Personnel), was responsible for manning & mobilisation and all personnel questions relating to the Royal Navy and Royal Marines.

The Third Sea Lord (later the Controller of the Navy) was responsible primarily for ship design and construction and most material matters including the Fleet Air Arm.

The Fourth Sea Lord (later Chief of Naval Supplies) was responsible for logistics, victualling and medical departments.

The Fifth Sea Lord (later the Chief of Naval Air Services) was responsible for all naval aviation.

Catwalk

Catwalk (pronounced kat-wawk)

(1) A narrow walkway, especially one high above the surrounding area, used to provide access or allow workers to stand or move, as over the stage in a theater, outside the roadway of a bridge, along the top of a railroad car etc; any similar elevated walkway.

(2) By extension, a narrow ramp extending from the stage into the audience in a theatre, nightclub etc, associated especially with those used by models during fashion shows (although the gender-neutral “runway” is now sometimes used in preference to “catwalk”).

(3) In nautical architecture, an elevated enclosed passage providing access fore and aft from the bridge of a merchant vessel.

(4) By extension, as "the catwalk", industry slang for the business of making clothes for fashion shows.

1874: The construct was cat + walk.  The use of catwalk to describe a long, narrow footway was a reference initially to those especially of such narrowness of passage that one had to cross as a cat walks.  It applied originally to ships and then theatrical back-stages, the first known use with a fashion show runway dating from 1942.  In architecture on land and at sea, the catwalk soon lost its exclusive association only with the narrow and came instead to be defined by function, used to describe any walkway between two points.  The noun plural is catwalks.  For both nautical and architectural purposes, the English catwalk was borrowed by many languages including Norwegian (Bokmål & Nynorsk) and Dutch and it’s used almost universally in fashion shows.  Some languages such as the Ottoman Turkish قات‎ use the spelling kat and some formed the plural as catz.

Cat (any member of the suborder (sometimes superfamily) Feliformia or Feloidea): feliform (cat-like) carnivoran & feloid or any member of the subfamily Felinae, genera Puma, Acinonyx, Lynx, Leopardus, and Felis or any member of the subfamily Pantherinae, genera Panthera, Uncia and Neofelise and (in historic use, any member of the extinct subfamily Machairodontinae, genera Smilodon, Homotherium, Miomachairodus etc, most famously the Smilodontini, Machairodontini (Homotherini), Metailurini, "sabre-toothed cat" (often incorrectly referred to as the sabre-toothed tiger) but now most associated with the domesticated species (Felis catus) of felines, commonly and apparently since the eight century kept as a house pet)) was from the Middle English cat & catte, from the Old English catt (male cat) & catte (female cat), from the Proto-West Germanic kattu, from the Proto-Germanic kattuz, from the Latin cattus.

Cat has most productively been applied in English to describe a wide variety of objects and states of the human condition including (1) a spiteful or angry woman (from the early thirteenth century but now almost wholly supplanted by “bitch” (often with some clichéd or imaginative modifier)), (2) An aficionado or player of jazz, (3) certain male persons (a use associated mostly with hippies or sub-set of African-American culture), (4) historic (early fifteenth century) slang for a prostitute, (5) in admiralty use, strong tackle used to hoist an anchor to the cathead of a ship, (6) in admiralty use, a truncated form of cat-o'-nine-tails (a multi-lash (not all were actually nine-tailed)) whip used by the Royal Navy et al to enforce on-board discipline), (7) in admiralty use, a sturdy merchant sailing vessel (long archaic although the use endures to describe the rather smaller "catboat", (8) as “cat & dog (cat being the trap), a archaic alternative name for the game "trap and ball", (9) the pointed piece of wood that is struck in the game of tipcat, (1) In the African-American vernacular, vulgar slang or the vagina, a vulva; the female external genitalia, (11) a double tripod (for holding a plate etc) with six feet, of which three rest on the ground, in whatever position it is placed, (12) a wheeled shelter, used in the Middle Ages as a siege weapon to allow assailants to approach enemy defenses, (13) in admiralty slang, to vomit, (14) in admiralty slang to o hoist (the anchor) by its ring so that it hangs at the cathead, (15) in computing, a program and command in the Unix operating system that reads one or more files and directs their content to the standard output (16) in the slang of computing, to dump large amounts of data on an unprepared target usually with no intention of browsing it carefully (which may have been a sardonic allusion of “to catalogue or a shortened form of catastrophic although both origins are unverified, a street name of the drug methcathinone, (17) in ballistics and for related accelerative uses, a shortened form of catapult, (18) for purposes of digital and other exercises in classification, a shortening of category, (19) an abbreviation of many words starting with “cat”) (catalytic converter, caterpillar (including as “CAT” by the manufacturer Caterpillar, maker of a variety of earth-moving and related machines)) catfish, etc, (20) any (non military-combat) caterpillar drive vehicle (a ground vehicle which uses caterpillar tracks), especially tractors, trucks, minibuses, and snow groomers.

Walk was from the Middle English walken (to move, roll, turn, revolve, toss), from the Old English wealcan (to move round, revolve, roll, turn, toss) & ġewealcan (to go, traverse) and the Middle English walkien (to roll, stamp, walk, wallow), from the Old English wealcian (to curl, roll up), all from the Proto-Germanic walkaną & walkōną (to twist, turn, roll about, full), from the primitive Indo-European walg- (to twist, turn, move).  It was cognate with the Scots walk (to walk), the Saterland Frisian walkje (to full; drum; flex; mill), the West Frisian swalkje (to wander, roam), the Dutch walken (to full, work hair or felt), the Dutch zwalken (to wander about), the German walken (to lex, full, mill, drum), the Danish valke & waulk), the Latin valgus (bandy-legged, bow-legged) and the Sanskrit वल्गति (valgati) (amble, bound, leap, dance).  It was related to vagrant and whelk and a doublet of waulk.

Walk has contributed to many idiomatic forms including (1) in colloquial legal jargon, “to walk” (to win (or avoid) a criminal court case, particularly when actually guilty, (2) as a colloquial, euphemistic, “for an object to go missing or be stolen, (3) in cricket (of the batsman), to walk off the field, as if given out, after the fielding side appeals and before the umpire has ruled; done as a matter of sportsmanship when the batsman believes he is out or when the dismissal is so blatantly obvious that the umpire’s decision is inevitable, (4) in baseball, to allow a batter to reach first base by pitching four balls (ie non-strikes), (5) to move something by shifting between two positions, as if it were walking, (6) (also as “to full”, to beat cloth to give it the consistency of felt, (6) in the slang of computer programming, to debug a routine by “walking the heap”, (7) in aviation, to operate the left and right throttles of an aircraft in alternation, (8) in employment, to leave, to resign, (9) in the now outlawed “sports” of dog & cock-fighting, to put, keep, or train (a puppy or bird) in a walk, or training area, (10) in the hospitality trade, to move a guest to another hotel if their confirmed reservation is not available at the time they arrive to check-in (also as to bump), (11) in the hospitality trade, as “walk-in”, a customer who “walks-in from the street” to book a room or table without a prior reservation, (12) in graph theory, a sequence of alternating vertices and edges, where each edge's endpoints are the preceding and following vertices in the sequence, (13) In coffee, coconut, and other plantations, the space between the rows of plants (from the Caribbean and most associated with  Belize, Guyana & Jamaica, (14) in orchids, an area planted with fruit-bearing trees, (15) in colloquial use, as “a walk in the park” or “a cakewalk”, something very easily accomplished (same as “a milk-run”) and (16) in the (now rare) slang of the UK finance industry, a cheque drawn on a bank that was not a member of the LCCS (London Cheque (check in the US) Clearance System), the sort-code of which was allocated on a one-off basis; they had to be "walked" (ie hand-delivered by messengers).

On the catwalk: Lindsay Lohan in a Heart Truth Red Dress during Olympus Fashion Week, Fall, 2006, The Tent, New York City.

How to walk like catwalk model

Traci Halvorson of Halvorson Model Management (HMM) in San Jose, California, has written a useful guide for those wishing to learn the technique of walking like a catwalk (increasingly now called the gender-neutral “runway”) model.  Although walking on a wide, stable flat surface, in a straight line with few other instructions except “don’t fall over”, doesn’t sound difficult, the art is actually a tightly defined set of parameters which not all can master.  Some models who excel at static shots and are well-known from their photographic work can’t be used on a catwalk because their gait, while within the normal human range, simply isn’t a “catwalk walk”.  It’s thus a construct, of clothes, shoes, style and even expression and catwalk models need to be adaptable, able to achieve essentially the same thing whether in 6-inch (150 mm) high stilettos or slippery-soled ballet flats; it’s harder than it sounds and as all models admit, nothing improves one’s technique like practice.

(1) The facial expression.  It sounds a strange place to start but it’s not because if the facial expression is unchanging it means it’s easier to focus on everything else, the rational being that humans use their range of facial expression to convey emotion and attitude but this all has to be neutralized to permit the photographers (paradoxically the audience is less relevant) to capture what are defined “catwalk” shots.  Set the chin to point slightly down though don’t hang the head; the angle should be almost imperceptible and it recommended to imagine an invisible string attached to the top of the head holding the chin in its set position.

(2) Do not smile.  Catwalk models do not smile because it draws attention away from the product although this does not mean looking miserable or unhappy; instead look “serious” and this usually is done by perfecting what is described as a “neutral” expression, one which would defy an observer being able to tell whether the wearer is happy or sad.  To achieve this, the single most important aspect is to keep the mouth closed in a natural position, something like what is recommended for a passport photograph and ask others to judge the look but as a note of caution, there will be failures because some girls just look sort of happy no matter what.  In most of life, this will be of advantage so a career other than the catwalk will beckon.

(3) On the catwalk, keep the eyes focused straight ahead.  This not only makes walking easier but also self-imposes a discipline which will help maintain the static facial expression.  Because the eyes are focused straight-ahead, it will stop the head moving and the look will be the desired one of alertness and purposefulness.  Some models recommend imagining a object moving in front of them and focus on that and in the situations where there’s a procession on the catwalk, it’s possible usually to fixate on some unmoving point on the model ahead.

(5) Don’t fall over.  It’s an obvious point but it does happen and usually, shoes are responsible, either because the nature of the construction has so altered the model’s centre of gravity or there's  contact between footwear and some flowing piece of fabric, either one’s own or one in the wake of the model ahead.  There is no better training to avoid “catwalk stacks” than to practice in a wide variety of shoe types.

(5) If possible, arrange a replica catwalk on which to practice, it need only to be a few paces long and arranged so the walk is towards a full-length mirror.  For side views, film using a carefully positioned camera and compare the result with footage of actual catwalk models at work.  If possible, work in pairs or a group because you’ll hone each other’s techniques but remember this is serious business and criticism will need to be frank; feelings may need to be hurt on the walk to the catwalk.

(6) Stand up straight, imagining the invisible string holding the head in place being also attached to the spine.  Keep the shoulders back but not unnaturally so, posture needs to be good but not stiff or exaggerated and a good posture can to some extent compensate for a lack of height.  Again, this needs to be practiced in front of a mirror and practice will improve the technique, the object being to stand straight while looking relaxed and comfortable.

(7) Perfecting the actual catwalk walk will take some time because, although it looks entirely natural when done by models, it’s not actually the “natural” way most people walk.  To train, begin purely mechanistically, placing one foot in front of the other and walking with (comfortably) long strides, the best trick being to mark a line on the floor with chalk and imagine walking on a rope, keeping one foot in front of the other, allowing the hips slightly to move from side to side; the classic model look.  With sufficient practice, what designers call the model’s “strut” will evolve and in conjunction with the other techniques, there’ll be a projection of assuredness and confidence.

(8) However, the hips need symmetrically and slightly to move, not swing.  Catwalk models are hired as platforms for clothes within a narrow dimensional range and this includes not only the cut of the fabric but also the extent it is required to move as the body moves and motion must not be exaggerated.  When practicing this, again it’s preferable to work in pairs or groups.

How it's done.  Catwalk models need to look good coming or going.

(9) Limit the movement of the arms when walking.  Let the arms hang at the sides with the hands relaxed, the swing of the limbs sufficient only to ensure the look is not unnaturally stylized and certainly nothing like that of most people on the street.  Many report when first practicing that there’s a tendency for the hands to clench into fists and that’s because of the discipline being imposed on other body parts but from the start, ensure the hands are relaxed, loosely cupped and with a small (natural) gap (something like ¼ inch (5-6 mm) between the fingers.  Allow the arms slightly to bend and they’ll sway (just a little) with the body.

(10) Practice specifically for the occasion.  Just as even the best tennis players have to practice on grass if they’ve just come off playing on clay or hard-courts, at least an hour before an actual catwalk session should be spent practicing in the same style of shoes as will be worn for the session(s).  This applies even if wearing something less challenging like flats because the change in weight distribution and the resultant centre of gravity is profound if the last few days have been spent in 6 inch (150 mm) heels.     

(11) Practice with different types of music because the catwalk walk really is an exercise in rhythm and if one can find a piece which really suits and makes the walk easier to perfect, if it’s possible to imagine that while on the catwalk, that’s good although sometimes there’s music at the shows and not all can focus on what’s in the head while excluding what’s coming through the speakers.

Traci Halvorson's instructions were of course aimed at neophytes wishing to learn the basic technique but among established models there are variations and the odd stake of the individualistic, the most eye-catching of which is the "fierce strut", a usually fast-paced and aggressive march down the catwalk while still using the classic one-foot-in-front-of-the-other motif which so defines the industry.  It's thus not quite Nazi-style goose-stepping or even the hybrid step used most enthusiastically by the female soldiers in the DPRK (North Korean) military but it's clearly strutting with intent.

Recent fierce struts on the catwalk (runway).

Fathom

Fathom (probounced fath-uhm)

(1) A unit of length equal to six feet (1.8288 m): used chiefly in nautical measurements and Admiralty papers.

(2) To measure the depth of by means of a sounding line; sound.

(3) In mining, a unit of volume usually equal to six cubic feet, used in measuring ore bodies (largely obsolete).

(4) In forestry, a unit of volume equal to six cubic feet, used for measuring timber (largely obsolete).

(5) To penetrate to the truth of; comprehend; understand.

Pre 900: From the Old English fæðm (length of the outstretched arm (a measure of about six feet), and figuratively, "power") from the Proto-Germanic fathmaz (embrace), related to the Old Norse faðmr (embrace) and the Old Saxon fathmos (the outstretched arms) and the Dutch vadem (a measure of six feet (1.8 m)).  The Middle English was fathme, cognate with the German Faden (a six-foot measure) and related to the Old English fæðmian (to embrace, surround, envelop), most forms at least influenced by the primitive Indo-European pot(ə)-mo-, a suffixed form of the root pete- (to spread).  Probable cognates included the Old Frisian fethem and the German faden (thread), the connection said to be the sense of "spreading out."  As a unit of measure, in an early gloss it appears for the Latin passus, which was about 5 feet (1.5 m).  The meaning "take soundings" is from circa 1600; its figurative sense of "get to the bottom of, understand" came some twenty years later.  The verb fathom was from the Old English fæðmian (to embrace, surround, envelop), from a Proto-Germanic verb derived from the source of the noun fathom, the cognates including the Old High German fademon and the Old Norse faþma.  The admiralty term fathomless (an adjective meaning literally "bottomless") is from the 1640s, later extended to figurative use (not to be comprehended).  Fathom is a noun and verb, fathomer & fathometer are nouns and fathomable, fathomless & (the predictably common) unfathomable are adjectives; the noun plural is fathoms.

The One-Hundred Fathom Line

UK Admiralty chart of the hundred fathom line, circa 1911.

The one-hundred fathom line is an Admiralty term for marking sea charts to delineate where the seabed lies at depths less or greater than 100 fathoms; it can thus be thought a particular expression of the continental shelf (though defined for military rather than geographical purposes).  Thus the distance from the coastlines of each land mass varies and it's related not at all to other boundaries established by the United Nation's (UN) Law of the Sea or other conventions such as territorial waters (historically 3 miles (5 km) and now 12 (20) or a state's Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) (200 (320)).  The hundred fathom line is now of little military significance (although it remains of interest to submariners) but it was cited as recently as 1952 in negotiations between the post-war Churchill (1951-1955) and Truman administrations (1945-1953) in defining the areas of preponderant operations for the Royal Navy and US Navy.

Lindsay Lohan GIF from A Beautiful Life (music video).  Although often photographed in the water, there's no evidence to suggest Ms Lohan has ever descended deeper than a a couple of fathoms.

Nautical

Nautical (pronounced naw-ti-kuhl)

(1) Of or relating to ships, navigation, sailors & other admiralty matters.

(2) As nautical mile, a measure of distance.

1545-1555: From the Middle French nautique (pertaining to ships, sailors, or navigation) from the Latin nautic(us) (of or relating to ships or sailors), from the Ancient Greek ναυτικός (nautikós) (seafaring, naval), from nautes (sailor), from naus (ship), from the primitive Indo-European nau (boat).  Nautical is the adjective, nauticality the noun and nautically the adverb; associated words include navigational, seafaring, maritime, marine, aquatic, naval, oceanic, pelagic, salty, ship, abyssal, thalassic, boating, deep-sea, navigating, oceangoing, oceanographic, rowing, sailing & seagoing.

The nautical mile

A unit of distance measurement used in maritime, air and space navigation, one nautical mile was defined originally as one minute (one sixtieth of a degree) of latitude along any line of longitude.  It’s since been re-defined several times and although the international nautical mile is set at 1852 metres (about 1.15 miles), other definitions co-exist: a US Navy nautical mile being 1853.2480 metres (6080.2 feet) whereas UK Admiralty charts use an even 6080 feet.  No standardized nautical mile symbol has ever been agreed with M, NM, nmi and nm variously used.

The derived unit of speed is the knot, a vessel at one knot along a meridian travels approximately one minute of geographic latitude in one hour.  The word knot was originally an admiralty term to measure speed, derived from counting the number of knots unspooled from a real of rope in a certain time.  Curiously, although kn is the ISO standard symbol for the knot, kt is also widely used, particularly in civil aviation.

The reason the generally accepted definition of national territorial waters was set at three nautical miles (5.6 km) was wholly military; it was maximum range of the big ordnance of the age, the cannon-ball.  Developments in ballistics and politics soon rendered the three mile limit irrelevant and states began to claim larger areas but, although the League of Nations Codification Conference began discussions in 1930, nothing was resolved either then or at the subsequent United Nations Conferences on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS I 1956-1958 & UNCLOS II 1960).  It took a ten-year process (UNCLOS 1973-1982) to secure international agreement that the national territorial limit was set at twelve nautical miles, the provision coming into force in 1994.

Lindsay Lohan's nautically themed Vanity Fair photo shoot, Marina del Rey, California, October 2010.  The location was the Sovereign, a motor yacht built in 1961 for the film star Judy Garland (1922-1969).

Corvette

Corvette (pronounced kawr-vet)

(1) In historic admiralty use, a flush-decked warship of the seventeenth & eighteenth centuries having a single tier of guns and one size down from a frigate; in the US Navy called a sloop of war (usually truncated to sloop).

(2) In current Admiralty use, a lightly armed and armored blue-water warship, one size down from a frigate and capable of transoceanic duty.

(3) A glass-fibre sports car produced in the US since 1953 by General Motors’ (GM) Chevrolet division.

1630–1640: From the French, from the Middle French corvette (a small, fast frigate), from either the Middle Dutch korver & corver (pursuit boat), the construct being corf (fishing boat; literally “basket”) + -ette or the Middle Low German korf (small boat; literally “basket”).  The source of both was the Latin corbis (basket) and, despite there existing also in Latin the corbita (navis) (slow-sailing ship of burden, grain ship), again from corbis, the relationship between this word and the later European forms is disputed.  The suffix –ette is from the Middle English -ette, a borrowing from the Old French -ette, from the Latin -itta, the feminine form of -ittus.  It was used to form nouns meaning a smaller form of something.  The Italian corvette & the Spanish corbeta are French loan-words, the German equivalent being korvette.  The obsolete alternative spelling was corvet.

Naval Battle between the French corvette La Bayonnaise and the British frigate HMS L'Embuscade, 14 December 1798, by Jean Francois Hue (1751-1823).

Historically, the term corvette, as applied to warships by various navies, can be misleading, the vessels varying greatly in size, displacement, armament and suitability for use on the high seas.  As a general principle, a corvette was understood to be a warship larger than a sloop, smaller than a frigate and with fewer and sometimes smaller-bore guns than the latter, always arrayed on a single deck.  Envisaged originally as a blue-water ship, they were allocated mostly to costal duties or the range of activities smaller vessels fulfilled in fleet support.  In the manner of military mission creep, overlap emerged and in some navies there were occasions when newer corvettes were at least a large an well-gunned as some frigates although the Royal Navy tended to maintain the distinctions, finding the smaller ships a useful addition in the seventeenth century, their fast build rate affording the Admiralty the means quickly to augment the firepower of a fleet.  To the British however, they remained sloops and it wasn’t until the 1830s the first vessels designated corvettes left UK shipyards.  It seems to have been the French Navy which first described the “big sloops” as corvettes but, whether by strategic design or in an attempt to confound the espionage activities of opponents, by the late eighteenth century, French naval architects were producing corvettes the British would have defined as frigates.

HMCS Bowmanville (K 493), Royal Canadian Navy Corvette of WWII.

Because of the nature of sea battles prior to World War II (1939-1945), ships the size of the corvette tended to be neglected, the interest in smaller warships be centred on the ever smaller torpedo boats and the two work-horses of the fleets, the frigate and the destroyer, both of which were better suited to support cruisers patrolling the trade routes of the empire and the battleships of the high-seas fleets.  What saw a revival of interest was the war-time need to protect the trans-Atlantic and Arctic Sea convoys.  While the small corvettes, marginal in blue-water conditions, weren’t ideal for the role, they could be produced quickly and cheaply and, as a war-time necessity, were pressed into service as a stop-gap until more destroyers became available.  An additional factor was their small size which meant they could be built in many of the small, civilian shipyards which would have lacked the capacity to construct a frigate, let alone a destroyer.  Since the war, the corvette as a designation has essentially become extinct but there have long been frigates and fast patrol boats in service with many navies which correspond in size with the traditional WWII corvette.

The early Chevrolet Corvettes, C1, C2 & C3 

1953 Corvette.

By 1952 the success in the US of MG and Jaguar had made it clear to Chevrolet that demand existed for sports cars and the market spread across a wide price band so with the then novel fibreglass offering the possibility of producing relatively low volumes of cars with complex curves without the need for expensive tooling or a workforce of craftsmen to shape them, a prototype was prepared for display at General Motors’ 1953 Motorama show.  Despite the perception among some it was the positive response of the Motorama audience which convinced GM’s management to approve production, the project had already be signed-off but the enthusiastic reaction certainly encouraged Chevrolet to bring the Corvette to market as soon as possible.  The name Corvette was chosen in the hope of establishing a connection with the light, nimble naval vessels.

1953 Corvette.

The haste brought its own, unique challenges.  In 1953, Chevrolet had no experience of large-scale production of fibreglass bodied cars but neither did anybody else, GM really was being innovative.  The decision was thus taken to build a batch of three-hundred identical copies, the rationale being the workers would be able to perfect the assembly techniques involved in bolting and gluing together the forty-six fibreglass pieces produced by an outside contractor.  Thus, essentially by a process of trial and error were assembled three hundred white Corvettes with red interiors, a modest beginning but the sales performance was less impressive still, fewer than two-hundred finding buyers, mainly because the rate of production was erratic and with so few cars available for the whole country, dealers weren’t encouraged to take orders; uncertainty surrounded the programme for the whole year.  Seldom has GM made so little attempt actually to sell a car, preferring to use the available stock for travelling display purposes, tantalizing those who wanted one so they would be ready to spend when mass-production started.

1954 Corvette.

The first Corvettes had been produced on a small assembly line in Flint, Michigan to allow processes closely to be observed and optimized and by late 1953, Chevrolet was ready for high-volume runs, moving production to a plant in Saint Louis, Missouri with the capacity to make ten-thousand a year.  In anticipation of the Corvette being a regular-production model, three additional colors (black, red, and blue) were offered and the black soft-top was replaced by one finished in tan.  However, despite the enhancements, demand proved sluggish and fewer than four-thousand were sold in 1954 and there were reasons.  In 1961, Jaguar would stun the world with its new sports car, powered by a triple-carburetor 3.8 litre straight-six but in 1953, although Chevrolet’s Corvette boasted the same specification and a much admired body, it wasn’t quite the sensation the E-type would be at Geneva.  The 1954 Corvette had gained a revised camshaft which increased power by five horse-power, the output respectable by the standards of the time but the only transmission available was the Powerglide, a two speed automatic which for robustness and reliability matched the Blue Flame six-cylinder engine (an updated version of the pre-war "Stovebolt") to which it was attached but neither exhibited the dynamic qualities which had come to be expected from a sports car although owners would have to get used to it: the Powerglide would be the only automatic transmission offered in a Corvette until 1968.  In truth, the Corvette was betwixt & between; not quite a sports car yet lacking the creature comforts to appeal to those wanting a relaxed GT (grand-tourer).

1955 Corvette V8.

Chevrolet solved the problem of the Corvette’s performance deficit in 1955 by slotting in the new 265 cubic inch (4.3-litre) V-8 which would later come to be called the small-block and become a corporate stable, appearing in various forms in just about every Chevrolet and some models in other divisions in the decades which would follow.  Rated now at a 195 horse-power which felt more convincing than the previous year’s 155, it was offered also with a three-speed manual transmission and could now run with the Jaguars, Mercedes-Benz and Ferraris on both road and track.  The Corvette had become a sports car.

1956 Corvette.

The V8 option had been introduced late in 1955 but the response of buyers had convinced Chevrolet where the future lay; once available, only seven had chosen the old Blue Flame six so for 1956 the Corvette became exclusively V8-powered, a specification by 2024 still not deviated from.  To emphasize the new direction, the Powerglide became optional and revisions to the engine meant power was now 210 horsepower (hp) although for those who wanted more, a dual four-barrel carburetor setup could be specified which raised that to 225.  Still made from fibreglass, the revised styling hinted at some influence from the Mercedes-Benz 300SL Gullwing but had practical improvements as well, external door handles appearing and conventional side windows replaced the fiddly removable curtains, a civilizing addition some British roadsters wouldn’t acquire until well into the next decade.  There was also the indication Chevrolet did envisage a dual role for the car for in addition to the Powerglide remaining available, buyers could now specify a power-operated soft top: whether it was sports car or GT was now up to the customer.

Jaguar E-Type advertising copy, 1971.

Chevrolet's experience in finding the six-cylinder Corvette had limited appeal once their V8 became available was in 1971 reprised across the Atlantic when Jaguar released the Series 3 E-Type (sometimes known in the US as XKE).  The Jaguar V12 project had a long gestation and by the time eventually it entered production, the 420G (1961-1970 and known originally as the Mark X) which had been intended as its first recipient, had been retired.  The task of engineering the much smaller XJ (introduced in 1968) to house the V12 was absorbing much energy so it was the E-Type in which the new engine was first used.  Jaguar made the effort to prepare the new S3 E-Type to use both the long-running, 4.2 litre (258 cubic inch) XK straight-six and the 5.3 litre (326 cubic inch) V12, including printing promotional material, even glossy, full-color, multi-lingual brochures.

Jaguar E-Type advertising copy, 1971.

However, before series production began, the decision was taken to offer the S3 only with the V12 and although there are tales of six XK-engined prototypes having been built, the Jaguar-Daimler Historic Trust insists the true number was four (2 roadsters & 2 coupés with one right hand drive (RHD) and one left hand driver version of each); the LHD coupé with a manual transmission survived although when offered at auction in England, its rarity (genuinely it is unique) didn't attract a premium as it sold for a price little different from what might be expected for a V12 in the same condition.  By 1974, when the effects of the spike in the price of oil began to affect demand for engines as thirsty as the V12, the E-Type was in its last days so the company made no attempt to resurrect one with the smaller engine, unlike Mercedes-Benz which quickly made available in the R107 roadster and C107 coupé the 2.7 litre (168 cubic inch) six as an alternative to the 3.5 (214 cubic inch) & 4.5 (276 cubic inch) V8s.  Although it couldn't at the time have been predicted, the C107 in both six & eight cylinder form remained available until 1989 so the efforts taken during the first oil shock proved worthwhile.  It wouldn't be until 1983 Jaguar offered the XJS (1975-1996 and (sort of) the E-Type's replacement) with a six-cylinder engine and, remarkably, the XJS would enjoy a longer life even than the R107, the last not leaving the factory until 1996.           

1957 Corvette (fuel injected).

In 1957, things started to get really serious, a four-speed manual transmission was added, the V8 was bored out to 283 cubic inches (4.6 liters) which increased power and, in an exotic touch which matched the Mercedes-Benz 300 SL (W198; 1954-1963), Rochester mechanical fuel-injection was an (expensive) option, allowing the Corvette to boast an engine with one hp per cubic inch, something in the past achieved only by the big dual-quad Chrysler Hemis, offered only in heavyweight machines which, although fast, were no sports cars, heavy cruisers rather than corvettes.

1958 Corvette.

A noted change for 1958 was the tachometer moving from the centre of the dashboard to a place directly in from to the driver, probably a wise move given the propensity of the fuel-injected engine to high-speeds and output continued to rise, by 1960 315 hp would be generated by the top option.  One big styling trend in 1957 had been the quad headlamps allowed after lighting regulations were relaxed and these were added, unhappily according to some, to the Corvette for 1958.  However, even many of those of those who admired the four-eyed look thought the lashings of chrome a bit much.  Chrome was quite a thing in Detroit by 1958 and DeSotos, Lincolns, Buicks and such were displaying their shiny splendour but it probably didn’t suit the Corvette quite so well which was unfortunate given it was adorned with much, even the headlight bezels getting a coating.  A change of management at the top of Chevrolet's styling department ensured 1958 was peak-chrome for the sports car; cars from other divisions would for some time continue to drip the stuff but the Corvette would be notably more restrained.

1962 Corvette.

Although the changes since 1963 had been many, the Corvette was still in its first generation but the 1962 model would be the end of the line.  The front end had earlier been revised from its chromed origin and in 1961 a redesigned rear was added which saw the debut of the quad-taillight design which would for decades remain a distinctive feature.  1962 saw the introduction of a 327 cubic-inch (5.3 litre) V8, the fuel-injected version now up to 360 hp and one aborted project was the Grand Sport (GS) Corvette, a competition oriented model.  It had been intended to build a hundred and twenty-five in order to homologate it in certain racing categories but GM, still (unlike its competitors) taking seriously the need to make it appear it was maintaining the industry's agreed ban on participation in motorsport, cancelled the programme after five had been built; all survived and are now expensive collectibles.

1963 Corvette.

For 1963, unusually, the big news wasn’t what was under the hood (bonnet).  The 327 V8 was carried over from 1962 but, other than the drive-train, it was a new car (later referred to as the C2, the 1953-1952 models now retrospectively dubbed the C1), offered for the first time as a coupé as well as the traditional convertible and with a revised frame which included independent rear suspension, a rarity at the time on US-built vehicles.  One quirk of the 1963 coupés was the split-window design of the rear glass.  A source of debate within Chevrolet, the anti-split faction eventually won and a single piece of glass was substituted in 1964 which of course rendered the 1963 cars instantly dated.  As a result, a small-scale industry sprung up offering owners the chance to update their look to that of the 1964's single piece of glass and many cars were converted.  That changed decades later when the unique feature of the 1963 car made it a much prized collectable and another small-scale industry briefly flourished converting them back and, whether true or urban myth, it’s said as many as 4% of the split-window coupés which now exist may be later models with a bit of judicious back-dating.  Chevrolet officially had no involvement in racing but understood the Corvette’s appeal to those who did and in 1963 offered Regular Production Option (RPO) Z06 which included an improved brake and suspension package.  Available only in conjunction with the 360 hp engine and a four-speed manual transmission, around two-hundred were built, most of them coupés.

1965 Corvette 396 with hard-top, side exhaust pipes and Kelsey-Hayes aluminium wheels.

In what was an overdue upgrade, Chevrolet made four-wheel disc brakes standard for the 1965 model year although the drums remained available for anyone who wished to save a few dollars.  Those who opted to eschew the dramatic improvement in braking offered were probably specialists; because of internal friction the discs did impose a (very slight) performance and economy reduction which was why drums were long preferred on the NASCAR ovals where brakes are rarely applied and fractions of a second per lap can be the difference between winning and losing; few Corvette buyers chose to save the US$64.50 and the discs were definitely a good idea if the newest engine was chosen.  Although developed by  Kelsey-Hayes, the brakes were manufactured for Chevrolet by Delco Moraine and included a pair of small drum brakes in the rear hubs to provide a parking brake, something difficult to engineer with disks.  Kelsey-Hayes also produced the optional aluminium wheels but at US$322.80 the take-up rate was low and many C2 Corvettes now are fitted with modern reproductions of the originals; the same applies to the side exhaust-pipes (a new option for 1965 at US$134.50), many more Corvettes now so equipped than the 759 which in 1965 left the factory. 

Mid-year, the big-block 396 cubic-inch (6.5 litre) V-8 became available and it was rated at 425 hp, a figure few doubted after seeing the performance figures.  Given the numbers, it wasn't surprising only 771 buyers chose the fuel injected 327 compared with the 2157 who opted for the big-block 396 which must have seemed a bargain compared to the US$202.30 Chevrolet charged for the 36 (US) gallon (136 litre) fuel tank (available only for the coupé) and all these prices must be considered in the context of the Corvette's base price (US$4106.00 for the convertible and US$1321.00 for the coupé), air-conditioning ordered by only 2423 buyers (9.7%); at US$421.00 it increased the invoice by some 10%.  There were charms only the fuel-injected unit could provide but the customer is always right and before the year was out, the Rochester option was retired and it wouldn’t be until 1982, in the age of the micro-chip, that Chevrolet would again offer a fuel-injected Corvette.  Buyers clearly were convinced by the big-block idea but the sections of the motoring press were ambivalent, Car & Driver's (C&D) review suggesting that while "...there are many sports cars which really need more power, the Corvette isn’t one of them."  Unlike the chauvinistic English motoring press which tended to be a bit one-eyed about things like Jaguars and Aston-Martins, there were many in the US motoring media who really didn’t approve of American cars and wished they were more like Lancias.  People should be careful what they wish for.

1967 Corvette L88.

Maybe even Chevrolet had moments of doubt after reading their copy of C&D and thought the 396 Corvette might have been a bit much because after providing cars for the press to test, they issued a statement saying the 396 wouldn’t be available in the Corvette after all but would be offered in the intermediate Chevelle as well as the full-sized cars.  The moment however quickly passed, the 396 Corvette remaining on the books and by 1966 Chevrolet certainly agreed there was no substitute for cubic inches, the 396 replaced by a 427 cubic-inch (7.0 litre) iteration of the big-block.  For 1966 it was still rated at 425 hp but in 1967, a triple carburetor option sat atop the top engine, gaining an additional ten hp.  There was however another, barely advertised and rarely discussed because of its unsuitability for street use and this was the L88, conservatively rated at 430 hp but actually developing between 540-560.  Essentially a road-going version of the 427 used in the (unlimited displacement FIA Group 7 sports-car) Can-Am race series, just 20 were sold in 1967, the survivors among the most sought-after Corvettes, one selling at auction in 2014 for US$3.85 million.

By the 1960s it was common for hard-tops to be on the option list of a roadster (in the era there was even one company which briefly (and unsuccessfully) offered fibreglass versions for Detroit's full-size convertibles) but Chevrolet gave C2 Corvette buyers the choice to have both a hard-top & soft-top or just one of the two.  Remarkably (and presumably in places where rain events were predictable), a number of buyers did take the hard-top only course and the configuration wasn't unique to Chevrolet, Mercedes-Benz in some years offering its "Pagoda" roadster (W113; 1963-1971) with only a hard-top although it was listed a separate model: the "California Coupé" which, despite the name, was still a convertible and one which offered the additional practicality of a folding bench seat in the rear compartment, permitting (cramped) seating for two.   

Joe Biden (b 1942; US president 2021-2025) in his 1967 Corvette.

Given he was already 62 when Mean Girls was released in 2004, most assumed it must have been an intern who provided the intelligence (1) that October 3 is "Mean Girls Day" and (2) "Get in loser, we're going shopping" is a line waiting to be a meme.  Thus the tweet in 2022 although there was some subterfuge involved, the photograph actually from a session at his Wilmington, Delaware estate on July 16 2020.  The excuse for not taking a new snap probably was legitimate, the Secret Service most reluctant to let him behind the wheel (and they probably have many reasons to be worried).  The presidency is often called the most powerful office in the world but he's still not allowed to drive his own Corvette and George HW Bush (George XLI, 1924-2018; US president 1989-1993) encountered push-back when he refused to eat broccoli, apparently still scarred by the experience when young of having the green stuff forced on him by his mother.  He was far from the only head of state to have had unresolved issues with his mother.

President Biden's Corvette Sting Ray (it was two words in the C2 era) was ordered with the base version of the 327 rated at 300 hp, coupled to a four-speed manual gearbox.  For what most people did most of the time the combination of the base engine and the four-speed was ideal for street use although there were some who claimed the standard three-speed transmission was even more suited to the urban environment, the torque-spread of even the mildest of the V8s such that the driving experience didn't suffer and fewer gearchanges were required.  Those wanting the automatic option were restricted still to the old two-speed Powerguide, the newer Turbo-Hydramatic with an extra ratio simply too bulky to fit (many have subsequently modified and updated their early cars with a Turbo-Hydramatic but they didn't have to organize the production line upon which thousands would be built).  The 1967 cars were actually an accident of history, the C3 slated for release as 1967 models delayed (the issues said to be with with aerodynamics which in the those days meant spending time in the wind tunnel and on the test track, computer modelling of such things decades away) by one season.  Sales were thus down from 1966 as the new, swoopy body was much anticipated but the 1967 cars are now among the most coveted.

Same L72 engine, different stickers: An early one (left) with a 450 HP sticker and a later build (right) with a 425 HP label.  

Most fetishized by the Corvette collector community are (1) rare models, (2) rare options singularly or in combinations and (3) production line quirks, especially if accompanied by documents confirming it was done by the factory.  There were a few of all of these during the Corvette’s first two decades and some of them attract a premium which is why the things can sell for over US$3 million at auction.  Other quirks bring less but are still prized, including the handful of 1966 cars rated at 450 hp.  The L72 version of the 427 cubic inch engine was initially listed as developing 450hp @ 5800 rpm, something GM presumably felt compelled to do because the 396 had been sold with a 425 hp rating and the first few cars built included an air-cleaner sticker reflecting the higher output.  However, the L72 was quickly (apparently for all built after October 1965) re-rated at 425 hp @ 5600 rpm although the only physical change was to the sticker, the engines otherwise identical.  Chrysler used the same trick when advertising the 426 Street Hemi at 425 hp despite much more power being developed at higher engine speeds and that reflected a trend which began in the mid-1960s to under-rate the advertised output of the most powerful engines, a response to the concerns already being expressed by safety campaigners, insurance companies and some politicians.  Later Corvettes would be rated at 435 hp and it wasn’t until the 1970 model year that Chevrolet would list a 450 hp option (the 454 cubic inch (7.4 litre) LS6) but that was exclusive to the intermediate Chevelle and it remains the highest advertised rating of the muscle car era.  GM did plan that year to release a LS7 Corvette rated at 465 hp, building at least one prototype and even printing the brochures but the universe had shifted and the project was stillborn.  So, all else being equal, an early-build 1966 Corvette with a 450 HP sticker on the air-cleaner should attract a premium but Chevrolet kept no records of which cars got them and with the stickers available for under US$20, it's obvious some have been "backdated", thus the minimal after-market effect.  Nor is there any guarantee some later-build vehicles didn't receive the stickers at the factory so even the nominal October 1965 "cut-off" isn't regarded as iron-clad, many assembly lines at the time known to use up superseded parts just to clear the inventory.  Not easily replicated however was another rarity from 1966.  That year, only 66 buyers chose RPO N03 (the 36 gallonfuel tank).  Depending on the the engine/transmission combination and final-drive ratio chosen, a Corvette's fuel economy was rated usually between "bad" and "worse" so the "big tank option" did usefully increase the range but it was really aimed at those using their cars in endurance racing.        

1969 Corvette L88.

The C2 Corvette had a short life of only five years and it would have been shorter still had not there been delays in the development of the C3 which went on sale in late 1967.  Dramatically styled, the C3 eventually debuted for the 1968 model year, the lines reminiscent of the Mako Shark II  (1965) concept car and the coupé included the novelty of removable roof panels.  Underneath the swoopy body, the C3 was essentially the same as the C2 except the old two-speed Powerglide was retired, the automatic option now whichever of the three-speed Turbo-Hydramatics suited the chosen engine.  The C3 also saw one of the early appearances of fibre-optic cables, used to provide an internal display so drivers could check the functionally of external lights and for 1969, the 327 was stroked to 350 cubic inches (5.7 litres), one of the surprisingly large number of changes which can make the 1968 Corvette something of a challenge for restorers, there being so many parts unique to that model-year.  Still available was the L88 and in the two seasons it was offered in the C3, 196 were sold (80 in 1968 and 116 in 1969) but even in its most successful year, the option represented only .0030% of annual production.

1969 Corvette ZL1 Roadster.

However, there was one even more expensive option, the RPO ZL1, sometimes described as “an all aluminium L88” but actually with a number of differences some necessitated by the different metal while others were examples of normal product development.  Again the fruit of Chevrolet’s support for the Can-Am teams, the ZL1 was no more suited to street use than the L88 and at US$4,718.35 was three times as expensive.  In 1969, a basic Corvette listed at US$4,781 and if the ZL1 option box was ticked the price essentially doubled although beyond that temptations were few, like the L88, air conditioning, power steering, power brakes and even a radio not available.  It was thus unsurprising demand was muted and it's now accepted that of the seven built, only two were sold, the other five being for engineering and promotional purposes, these “factory mules” scrapped or re-purposed after their usefulness was over.  The yellow coupé last changed hands in October 1991 when it was sold in a government auction for US$300,000 (then a lot of money) after being seized by the DEA (Drug Enforcement Agency) and in January 2023, at auction, the orange roadster realized US$3.14 million.  The yellow one sits now in the museum attached to Roger Judski's Corvette Centre in that hive of DEA activity: Florida.

1969 Corvette ZL1 Coupé.

So the orthodox wisdom is there are two “real” ZL1s and an unknown number of faux versions (described variously as clones, replicas, tributes etc, none of these terms having an agreed definition and thus not useful as indications of the degree to which they emulate a factory original).  However, the “ultra” faction in the Corvette community maintains the yellow coupé is a genuine one-off and claim the orange roadster left the factory with an L88 engine and in that form it was raced, as well as when fitted with a ZL1.  The faction further notes the orange machine is an early-build vehicle reported to have closed chamber heads whereas the RPO ZL1s used open chambers.  The “moderate” faction continues to regard the count as two although nobody seems now to support the rumors which circulated for a few years indicating a third and even a fourth, the supposed “black roadster” later confirmed to be faux.  Given all that, the fact the orange car sold for over US$3 million in 2023 does suggest that were the yellow one to go on the block, a new record price would be likely.  Roger Judski (B 1947), owner of the yellow ZL1, has been trading Corvettes since 1965 and is as authoritative an expert on the breed as anyone and he belongs to the moderate faction which supports the orthodox count of two factory ZL1s.

1971 Corvette with RPO ZR2 LS6 454.  This is one of two convertibles, the other 10 1971 ZR2s being coupés.

The 1969 ZL1 and L88 however would prove to be peak C3 Corvette.  Times were changing and in 1970 it was the Chevelle which was offered with Chevrolet’s top big-block street engine, the now 454 cubic-inch (7.4 litre) LS6 rated at 450 hp, the industry’s highest (official) rating of the era; plans for a 465 hp LS7 Corvette were cancelled as insurance costs and the regulatory environment began to tighten around the high-powered monsters although serious horsepower remained available: while the LS5 454 was rated at 390 horsepower, the performance it delivered suggested it was perhaps a little healthier.  The Corvette highlight of the 1970s however came in 1971 with the availability of the RPO ZR2 for the LS6 engine, described in dealer sheets as the “RPO ZR2 Special Purpose LS6 Engine Package” and it can be regarded as a successor the L88, supplied with the Muncie M22 close-ratio (Rock-Crusher) four-speed manual transmission, transistorized ignition, a heavy-duty aluminum radiator (with shroud delete, a hint it really didn’t belong on the street), heavy-duty power disc brakes, F41 Special Suspension with specific springs, shocks and special front and rear sway bars.  Like the L88s, air-conditioning and a radio were not on the option list, neither much used on race-tracks.  Chevrolet built only a dozen ZR2 Corvettes (two of which were convertibles) in 1971, not because production deliberately was limited but because of the cost (the list price was a then substantial US$7.672.80) and their unsuitability for everyday use meant demand was subdued.  Although scheduled for 1970, industrial relations problems delayed production of the ZR2 until 1971 by which time stricter regulations had compelled cancellation of the LS7 454 so RPO ZR2 was re-purposed for the LS6, rated at a conservative 425 horsepower although this didn’t fool the insurance industry.  

800 cfm (cubic feet per minute) carburetor on 1970 Corvette LT1.

Lurking behind the thunder of the 454 however was the most charismatic of the small-block Corvettes since the days of the fuel-injected 283 & 327.  This was the 350 LT1, a high-revving mill very much in the tradition of the Camaro's 302 Z/28 (RPO Z28 picked up the slash when used as a model name) used in the (five litre (305 cubic inch) production car) Trans-Am series, which featured heavy-duty internals and high performance additions including solid valve lifters, forged pistons, an 11:1 compression ratio, four-bolt main bearing caps, a forged steel crank, a hi-lift camshaft, a baffled sump and a free-flowing induction and exhaust system.  In a echo of the days of Rochester fuel-injection, it was almost twice the price of a 454 but was a persuasive package and over a thousand were made.  Available only with a manual transmission, it lasted until 1972 and although the lowering of the compression ration meant power ratings dropped season-by-season (1970:370 HP; 1971:330 HP; 1972:255 HP), the 1972 number reflected the industry's change from quoting gross to nett horsepower so the reduction wasn't as dramatic as it might appear.  Although still fast by most standards, the 1972 cars were somewhat less potent, the compensation being that by reducing the redline to 5600 RPM (to stop the belt flying off the compressor), the LT1 could that year be ordered with air-conditioning.  Most desirable of the C3 LT1s were those ordered with the ZR1 package, fewer than 60 of which were delivered between 1970-1972.  The ZR1 options were focused not on additional horsepower but rendering the chassis better suited for use in competition, the target market those who wanted to participate in the racing series run by the SCCA (Sports Car Club of America).  Accordingly, what was included was a cold-air hood, a larger capacity cooling system (including a different shroud and fan optimized for high-speed operation), the famed Muncie M22 (rock crusher) four-speed manual transmission, electronic ignition, upgraded power brakes, stiffer shock-absorbers (dampers), springs and front & rear anti-roll (sway) bars.  Given the emphasis, choosing the ZR1 package meant that, like the big-block L88s & ZL1, the fitting of luxuries like air conditioning, the rear-window defroster, power steering, the fancy wheel covers, alarm system and a radio were precluded.  ZR1 buyers really did inhabit a niche market and the vehicles are now highly prized.

1980 Corvette 305.

The LT1 is fondly remembered but from then on it was mostly downhill for the C3 although in its last decade its popularity reached new heights and in those years it was one of GM's most profitable lines.  In 1975 both the convertible and the (by then much-detuned 454) big-block V8 were cancelled but tellingly, in that era of malaise, the C3 enjoyed a long India summer, its performance stellar on the sales charts if not the track and, with no appetite for horsepower, Chevrolet devoted attention to creature comforts, creature comforts like seats and air-conditioning systems much improved.  A sort of nadir is noted for the 1980 models sold in Californian which, because of more stringent emission rules, were fitted only with an automatic transmission and the 305 cubic inch (5.0 litre) engine found often in station wagons and pick-up trucks although, it still managed to be a little brisker than the Blue Flame original.  The Californian 305 was rated at 180 hp which was actually 15 more than the unfortunate 350 (L48) in the 1975 model which had been rated at the same 150 as the 1953 original (in 1975 the optional L82 engine was listed with 205 hp).  The method of calculating the stated hp changed in 1972 so the earlier numbers are overstated compared with the newer but there's no doubt the Corvettes of the mid-1970s were making a lot less power than the earth-pawing fire-breathers of a few years earlier and if things had improved by the early 1980s, it wasn't by much.  Both the tamest of the 1975 cars and the 1980 Californian 305 tend to be listed together among the least fondly remembered of the breed but enjoying solid demand to the end, the C3 remained in production until 1982, the last sold the following year.