Caste

Caste (pronounced kahst)

(1) In sociology, an endogamous and hereditary social group limited to persons of the same rank, occupation, economic position, etc, and having mores distinguishing it from other such groups.

(2) Any rigid system of social distinctions.

(3) In Hinduism, any of the social divisions into which Hindu society is traditionally divided, each caste having its own privileges and limitations, transferred by inheritance from one generation to the next.

(4) In entomology, one of the distinct forms among polymorphous social insects, performing a specialized function in the colony, as queen, worker or soldier.

1545-1555: From the Portuguese & Spanish casta (race, breed, ancestry), noun use of casta, feminine of casto, from the Classical Latin castus (pure, chaste), from castus (cut off, separated; pure) the notion being "cut off" from faults and was the past participle of carere (to be cut off from (and related to castration)).  The ultimate root was the primitive Indo-European kes (to cut) from which Latin later picked-up cassus (empty, void).  It was originally spelled cast in English and later often merged with the noun cast in its secondary sense "sort, kind, style."  Many of the derived forms (half-caste, quarter-caste, castless, outcaste (actually modeled on the English outcast) et al) were coined under the Raj and reflect the concerns and prejudices of the colonialists.  Caste & casteism are nouns; the noun plural is castes.

Application to Hindu social groups was picked up by English in India in the early 1600s and the English used the Portuguese casta (the earlier casta raça (unmixed race) comes from the same Latin root)) but the spelling soon became caste.  Interestingly, the phrase "caste system" seems not to have been in use (at least in surviving documents) until the 1840s.  Caste differs from class in that caste has come to mean a group of persons set apart by economic, social, religious, legal, or political criteria, such as occupation, status, religious denomination, legal privilege, skin colour, or some other physical characteristic.  In the west, over time, wealth or other desirable characteristics can permit upward movement between classes whereas in societies with defined (even if informally) caste systems, the distinctions tended to be static and inter-generational.

The Raj and after

Although it exists in many regions and religions, the best-known caste system is that of the Hindus, probably because, under the Raj, it was well suited to the purposes of British colonial administration, run as it mostly was by the class-conscious English.  The pre-Raj historical development of caste is contested but its origins are certainly in ancient India although modified to suit the needs of the various elites, the two most recent being the Raj and the government in New Delhi.  Historically, the Hindu castes, as a codified structure, existed only as divisions within the political elite, priests, intellectuals and generals and it was only later, as the means of of communications and methods of centralized control improved, that it was extended to previously casteless social groups which became differentiated caste communities.  Under the Raj, the colonial administrators rendered rigidity to the caste organization and until 1920, permitted only those of the upper castes to be appointed to senior civil service positions.  This changed in the 1920s, not because of any sympathy by the British towards notions of social justice but because of social unrest and agitation for independence so the Raj applied the classic colonial fix which for centuries the British did better than anyone: take the side of the oppressed minority.  From then on, the Raj enacted a policy of affirmative action by reserving a certain percentage of civil service positions for the lower castes.

Despite the impression in the west, the new constitution of independent India didn’t actually abolish caste but it did outlaw discrimination against lower castes by essentially (and unsuccessfully) proscribing untouchability and central and state governments continue to use caste as a mechanism to promote positive discrimination in education and employment.  The implications of this, particularly the unintended consequences, are not without controversy.  Although there exists a bewildering number of sub-castes, the four major hereditary castes are:

Brahmins: priests, scholars and teachers.
Kshatriyas: rulers, warriors and administrators.
Vaishyas: agriculturalists and merchants.
Shudras: workers and service providers.

In the narrow technical sense, the untouchables (popularly still known as Dalits, although the government has mandated Scheduled Castes) are not part of the caste system but, by outsiders, are regarded as the caste system's lowest rung.  Dalit was from the Hindi दलित (dalit) (downtrodden, oppressed), from the Sanskrit दलित (dalita) (broken, scattered)).  Few institutions have proved as suitable for adaptation to the structured databases of the internet than the Indian marriage market which works by determining compatibility, based on matching the values in the fields; collectively, what a candidate enters into these fields constitutes their "biodata" and on the basis of this they will hope to be judged a suitable boy or girl.  In India, it's widely acknowledged that while the algorithms which underpin the sites are helpful as an exclusionary tool (and thus a great time-saver), the actual selection process of from what remains lie still with the families & individual prospective brides & grooms, the relative influence varying between households.  In contemporary India, while as a system of social stratification caste remains one of the most powerful cultural dynamics, there is now more reluctance to discuss its operation and there is some evidence of changing attitudes among younger generations, especially the urbanized.  However, in the rural areas where most of the population lives, caste seems still to be as crucial a determinate of structure as ever.

The informal social stratifications which emerge organically in an institution like a high school are interesting because they are determined by both outside influences and their interaction with the formal stratifications inherent in the educational system (age, academic & sporting achievement, the geographical catchment from which the cohort is drawn etc).  The term clique is often used and in the microcosm of a school, that's probably the best word because unlike a caste, movement between cliques is possible, depending only on group acceptance.  Clique was borrowed from the French, from the Old French cliquer which was imitative (on the idea of "click") and thought to have been influenced by claque (a group of people hired to applaud or boo (literally “a slap; a clap")).

Any review of the work of anthropologists, sociologists and behavioral zoologists would probably confirm that on planet Earth, among all groups of humans or non-humans which have been organized into any sort of collective arrangement, some form of a system of social stratification can be identified.  In human cultures, some have for centuries operated in the manner of castes in that they were unchanging and based entirely on descent with social movement either culturally or legally proscribed while some came to acknowledge wealth could permit "upward mobility".  In rare cases this could be almost instant but more commonly was something which unfolded over several generations, each becoming more refined than the last, the combination of gentility and financial largess towards their erstwhile "betters" (effectively bribes or "cash for honors") being rewarded with titles and appointments to offices within the establishment.  In the West, this lent societies an economic and cultural dynamic often lacking in places where hierarchies tended to be static.

Cologne

Cologne (pronounced kuh-lohn)

(1) A Rhine River port and the largest city in the western German state of North Rhine-Westphalia (NRW), commercially significant since ancient times.  The German name is Köln (formerly Cöln).

(2) A mildly perfumed toilet water originally the short form of eau de Cologne (Cologne water), made in Cologne since 1709.

(3) A general term for a perfumed liquid or solid made typically with 2-5% fragrant essential oils and 70-95% water & alcohol.

1709 (for the scent).  A short form of eau de Cologne (Cologne water), the name given to the original product in 1709 and such was the success of the original that imitators were soon legion and the product name (usually as bottled liquids) was by the mid-century generic.  The concoction was first brewed by Italian-born perfumier Giovanni Maria Farina (1685-1766) whose contribution to civility was by in 1844 noted in a dictionary as “a distilled spirit blended with certain essential oils so as to give off a fragrant scent”.  Founded in 38 BC as Oppidum Ubiorum, the city was renamed and made a colony in 50 AD at the request of the Emperor Claudius's (10 BC–54 AD; Roman emperor 41-54 AD) wife Agrippina the Younger (15-59 AD), becoming Colōnia Agrippīna (Agrippine Colony) in honor of his mother-in-law.  Colōnia (colony) was from colōnus (farmer; colonist), from colō (till, cultivate, worship), from quelō, from the primitive Indo-European kel (to move; to turn (around)).  From this came the French word for the city (Cologne) which seems to have been in general use in English by the early-mid eighteenth century.  Some historians Agrippina the Younger poisoned Claudius and if so, that suggests, at least, ingratitude.  By 450 AD, the name had been shortened to Colonia before eventually being Germanized, first as Cöln and later Köln.  Cologne & Cologner are proper nouns & nouns and cologned is an adjective; the noun plural is colognes.

The distinction between cologne and perfume is probably well-understood although there is some imprecision in use, the main differences being the in the concentration of fragrant oils and the intended use.  Cologne, typically contains a lower concentration of oils (usually 2-5%) which results in something lighter and less intense than other scents (most of which are now called perfume (also as Parfum or Extrait de Parfum) in which the concentration ranges most often between 15-40%.  Cologne can thus be fashioned as something subtle and refreshing and ideal for everyday wear although it’s generally not as long-lasting as perfume.  Perfumes are more intense (especially as concentrates) and can be long-lasting, their effect lingering even for hours.  As a general principle, cologne is used in greater volume although a number of perfumes are available as sprays and applied about as liberally whereas the classic concentrates should be daubed onto pulse points such as the wrists, neck and behind the ears.  Historically, cologne was thought of as something worn by men (often as a form of deodorant) rather than women but the products are now less gender-specific.

CColognes have long been marketed to women: Max Factor’s Primitif (1957 left) was explicitly labeled as cologne.  In the twenty-first century, fcuk’s friction (for him) and her (for her) were colognes but described in the marketing material as Eau De Toilette.  The fcuk advertising copy which accompanied the Lindsay Lohan campaign read: "an ultra feminine mix of hypnotic fruity florals and tantalizingly seductive vanilla that penetrate the senses.  its velvety coconut and sensual warmth will keep him coming back for more." (Original syntax in the fcuk style as printed)

Perhaps surprisingly, the European Union (EU) seems never to have sought to impose restrictions on the use of the term “cologne” in the same way they’ve successfully protected geographical indications (GI) like Cognac, Champagne, Parma Ham et al.  Geographical indications (GIs) are protected under EU law to prevent misuse and imitation of traditional products with a specific geographical origin (especially if traditional methods of production are involved).  The rationale is that protection helps maintain the quality and reputation of these products and supports the local communities involved in their production and the EU does not seek to prevent winemakers anywhere making champagne (anyone free to adopt méthode champenoise); they insist only it can’t be marketed as “Champagne”.  Cologne has never been afforded this protection because of the long history of use, both in Europe and around the world.  It long ago became generic.

Cologne Capris leading and following a BMW CSL “Batmobile”, European Touring Car Championship, Salzburgring, 1974.

The Ford “Cologne Capris” used to contest European touring car racing in the 1970s were so named because while Ford of England focused on the international rally championships, the Cologne-based arm of Ford Europe prepared the cars for use on the circuits.  The first version was a fairly modest (by later standards) modification of the RS 2600 which used a 2.6 litre (158 cubic inch) version of the German built V6 which over time was gradually increased in capacity to take advantage of the three litre (183 cubic inch) class limit.  With exotic cylinder heads and a rear suspension which somehow complied with the letter of the law while obviously being a clause passing through a loophole, it was at once successful but Ford’s spies were aware BMW was preparing one of the era’s great homologation specials, the be-winged 3.0 CSL which, powerful and significantly lightened, so gained the nickname “Batmobile”.

Cologne Capris and BMW CSL “Batmobiles”, European Touring Car Championship, Nürburgring, 1974.

The lawyers at in Munich proved as adept as those in Cologne at reading the rulebook and increased the production CSL’s engine displacement to just over three litres, permitting a larger capacity version to be used in competition and the factory produced a 3.5 litre version of the straight-six for the track.  Ford’s answer was a run of 3.1 litre (189 cubic inch) V6 Capris as road cars which meant a 3.4 litre (207 cubic inch) version could be built for competition.  Based this time on the English “Essex” V6, to meet the BMW threat it was fitted with double overhead camshaft (DOHC) heads with four valves per cylinder, a configuration BMW would soon match.  The competition between the Cologne Capris and the Batmobiles was much anticipated as all the ingredients for a stellar season were in place but unfortunately the contests were rare because the Oil Crisis of 1973-1974 meant both Ford and BMW scaled down their competition departments and Ford in late 1974 cancelled the entire programme, the Batmobiles, now with less opposition, continuing to enjoy success on both sides of the Atlantic for several more seasons.

Traduce

Traduce (pronounced truh-doos or truh-dyoos)

(1) To malign a person or entity by making malicious and/or false or defamatory statements; slander; libel; defame.

(2) To pass on (to one's children, future generations etc.); to transmit (archaic).

(3) To pass into another form of expression; to rephrase, to translate (archaic).

1525–1535: From the Latin trādūcō (lead as a spectacle, dishonor), from trādūcere (to lead over, transmit, disgrace), a variant of trānsdūcere (to transfer, display, expose), the construct being tra- (from the preposition trāns (through, across, beyond)) + dūcere (to lead).  Synonyms include vilify, decry & disparage.  The Latin trādūcere was from the Proto-Italic tranzdoukō and cognates included the Italian tradurre and the French traduire.  The noun transduction (act of leading or carrying over) is from the 1650s, from the Latin transductionem & traducionem (nominative transductio) (a removal, transfer), noun of action from the past-participle stem of transducere & traducere (change over, convert) which also picked up the meaning "lead in parade, make a show of, dishonor, disgrace".  Traduce, traduction, traduced & traducing are verbs, traducement & traducer are nouns, traducingly is an adverb and traducible is an adjective; the most common noun plural is traducements.

To be traduced in speech or in writing (historically treated in English (and related) legal systems respectively as libel and slander but some systems have reformed their rules and now treat all as just the single concept of defamation) can allow the victim to seek redress through legal process, the available remedies including retractions, apologies and damages by way of financial compensation.  Also available is the injunction to prevent publication and what has become popular in some jurisdictions in the (secret) secret injunction, a device whereby (1) publication is denied, (2) all details of the matter (names of the parties or even an allusion to the nature of the proscribed material) and (3) the very fact any injunction has been granted is kept secret.

Mostly a thing of civil law, in some jurisdictions there’s still the offence of criminal defamation but its very existence is now less common and use seldom.  Criminal defamation exists when someone publishes defamatory material knowing it is, or not caring if it is, false with the intention to, or not having regard to whether it will, cause serious harm to the victim or any other person is guilty of a crime.  In most cases, the same defenses available in a civil action can be used in a criminal matter; a criminal charge does not preclude civil action being taken for the same publication.  The matter of truth is interesting.  In the United States, truth is an absolute defense to an action for defamation.  As many have found out, that doesn’t mean there aren’t in the US consequences for publishing something defamatory but the action taken will not be on grounds of libel or slander.  Although it seems strange to many, truth isn’t an absolute defense in many jurisdictions but it can be a matter raised in mitigation so that even if a judgment is delivered against a defendant, the damages awarded may be nominal.

Publish and be damned

Although there’s always been a suspicion a ghost writer may have helped a bit in matters of style, the content of Harriette Wilson’s (1786–1845) book The Memoirs of Harriette Wilson: Written by Herself was all her own.  First published in 1825, it was a best seller and thought topical enough to deserve a re-print a century later, it’s notable still for having one of the finest opening lines of any auto-biography ever published:

"I shall not say how and why I became, at the age of fifteen, the mistress of the Earl of Craven."

The cover of some of the French editions were more alluring than those sold in England.

However much the tales of Regency’s most revealing courtesan may have delighted readers, there was one not so happy.  In the mail one morning in December 1824, Arthur Wellesley (1st Duke of Wellington; 1769–1852, UK prime-minister 1828-1830) the famous soldier who led the coalition of armies which defeated Napoleon Bonaparte (1769–1821; leader of the French Republic 1799-1804 & Emperor of the French from 1804-1814 & 1815) at Waterloo in 1815, found a letter from the publisher John Joseph Stockdale (circa 1775-1847) which can’t have been pleasant reading.  Stockdale was attempting blackmail, advising the duke he was about to publish Miss Wilson’s revelations which contained “various anecdotes” of Wellington which “it would be most desirable to withhold” and that could be arranged were payment to be made.

Duke of Wellington (1816) by Sir Thomas Lawrence (1769-1830).

The duke's response was the famous “Publish and be damned!” reputedly scrawled across Stockdale’s letter and sent to him by return mail.  Publish Stockdale did, the book, a romp through the beds of the aristocracy appearing by installments before appearing in bookshops where it scandalized and thrilled London society although it would have been more salacious still had more of Stockdale’s blackmail victims had the fortitude of the iron duke and refused to pay.  An instant best-seller, the book went through thirty-one printings in a year and pirated copies were on-sale all over the continent but even without revenue from overseas sales the book was lucrative although the Stockdale was soon ruined by libel suits from those whose reputations had been traduced and Miss Wilson would eventually die in obscurity.

Riveting reading it may have been but so many of the libel actions against Stockdale were able to succeed in English courts because of the many errors of detail and chronology but historians nevertheless agree the narrative is substantially a reliable track of Miss Wilson’s adventures even if the sequence of events is sometimes misleading; to be fair, she had so many affairs it would be churlish not to allow for a little vagueness of recollection, one man presumably much the same as another after a while.  Whether “Publish and be damned!” in the duke’s own hand was ever written across the letter and sent back has never been confirmed because the original apparently hasn’t survived but there’s enough evidence from contemporaries to leave no doubt he certainly spoke the words but whatever she wrote of her time with Wellington, it must have been sufficiently truthful to convince the duke not to issue a writ for libel, despite at the time having threatened to sue “...if such rubbish is published”.

His marriage was already unhappy and the disclosures probably little surprised the duchess and the union endured until her death while the book clearly did no lasting harm to the duke's public reputation, the hero of Waterloo afforded some latitude in pre-Victorian England.  Within a decade of publication he would be prime minister and when he died in 1852, he was again a national hero and granted a state funeral, a rare distinction in England, unlike Australia where they’re given to reasonably successful football coaches and television personalities.  The phrase “Publish and be damned!” entered the language and was in 1953 used as the title of a book detailing the history of the Daily Mirror newspaper, a tabloid which once had its own interesting history.

To keep track of one's traductions, it's recommended a burn book be maintained.  Introduced to the world in Mean Girls (2004), "burn" in this context was used in the sense of "an insult, a disparaging statement" and, depending on one's motives, a burn book can either focus exclusively on one individual worthy of being burned (eg crooked Hillary Clinton) or be devoted to a villainous group (eg the Republican Party).  One of the attractions of a burn book is that nothing, however scurrilous, need be verified and heresy evidence is admissible (indeed it's probably obligatory).  Thus, accusations against someone of stuff like voting Tory, belonging to the Freemasons, enjoying sexual relations with certain vegetables & fruits (all three perhaps not unrelated), substance abuse or hoarding all belong in a burn book and, if selectively and anonymously leaked, reputations will be traduced.  The other utility a burn book offers is that nothing gets forgotten however great the volume, an important point for any traducer who likely will find someone like crooked Hillary will attract hundreds of entries.  Surely, Harriette Wilson kept a burn book.

Politicians do maintain burn books although few are much discussed.  Richard Nixon's (1913-1994; US president 1969-1974) "enemies list" became famous in 1973 when it emerged during congressional hearings enquiring into the Watergate break-in and that such a list existed surprised few although some did expect it to contain more names than the twenty included; it was common knowledge Nixon had many more enemies than that.  That view was vindicated when later lists were revealed (some containing hundreds of names) though had the net been cast a little wider, it could well have run to thousands.  At least one Eurocrat has also admitted to keeping a burn book although Jean-Claude Juncker (b 1954; president of the European Commission 2014-2019) calls his "little black book" Le Petit Maurice (little Maurice), the name apparently a reference to a contemporary from his school days who grew taller than the youthful Jean-Claude and seldom neglected to mention it.  Although maintained for some thirty years (including the eighteen spent as prime-minister of Luxembourg) to record the identities of those who crossed him, Mr Junker noted with some satisfaction it wasn't all that full because people “rarely betray me”, adding “I am not vengeful, but I have a good memory.”   It seems his warning “Be careful.  Little Maurice is waiting for you” was sufficient to ward of the betrayal and low skulduggery for which the corridors of EU institutions are renowned.

Trapezoid

Trapezoid (pronounced trap-uh-zoid)

(1) In British English, a quadrilateral plane figure having no parallel sides.

(2) In US English, a quadrilateral plane figure having two parallel and two non-parallel sides.

(3) In anatomy, a small bone in the wrist that is situated near the base of the index finger and that articulates with the second metacarpal, trapezium, capitate, and scaphoid bones.

1706: From the New Latin trapezoīdēs, from the Late Greek trapezoeidḗs (trapezium-like in shape), coined by the mathematician Euclid (4^th-3^rd century BC) from trapeze (literally “table”) + -oeides (shaped).  Originally it described a quadrilateral figure a quadrilateral figure having only two sides parallel, the purists insisting that describes a trapezium.  The terms trapezium and trapezoid have swapped meanings in North America compared with the rest of the world.  Trapezoid & trapezium are nouns, trapezoidal is an adjective; the noun plural is trapezoids or trapeziums depending on one's definition.

The trapezoid’s different definitions

Of all the squabbles in the world, one of the most improbably enduring concerns the definition of what constitutes a trapezoid.  Disagreements between mathematicians are of course not unusual and those involving the efficacy of this or that proof of some arcane have lasted sometimes centuries but differences over the definition of something basic are rare.  They do however happen.  It was once the case that in the UK the value of a billion was held to be a million millions, on the logical basis that a million was a thousand thousands.  The Americans decided that was silly because a number expressing a million millions was (at the time) of use only to cosmologists and argued, no less logically that to set a billion at a thousand millions would make it genuinely useful.  In the end, thankfully, the US view prevailed.

An irregular quadrilateral in the UK, a trapezium in the US (left); a trapezium in the UK, a trapezoid in the US (right).

But it seems strange there could be differences over what makes a trapezoid, a flat 2D shape with four straight sides.  Classically, it had one pair of parallel sides (usually the top and bottom); the parallel called the bases, the non-parallel the legs (the distance from one base to another is known as the altitude).  The faction which holds a trapezoid has only one pair of parallel sides (meaning they can never be parallelograms) adheres to what’s known as the exclusive definition.  The others (now in the majority) believe trapezoids have at least one pair of parallel sides, so they can be a special type of parallelogram and this is known as the inclusive definition which encompasses the “taxonomy of quadrilaterals” (an ordered group category of quadrilaterals (four-sided shapes)).  In the US and Canada a quadrilateral shape with at least one pair of parallel sides is known as a trapezoid. This is what is called a trapezium outside those countries

Fortunately, mathematicians everywhere agree there are three main types of trapezoids:

(1) The right trapezoid (a shape with a pair of right angles).
(2) Isosceles trapezoid (a shape in which the non-parallel sides have the same length).
(3) Scalene trapezoid (a shape where all four sides are of unequal length).

Peugeot 504 with the original “trapezoid” headlamp lens (left), the four-lamp arrangement used in the US, Australia (after 1973) and some export markets (centre) and the single light adopted for the “poverty spec” & later utility models (right).

The Peugeot 504 in one form or another was in production for almost half a century, lasting from 1968 until 2006 although the mainstream (non-utility) models were discontinued in France in 1983.  A machine of extraordinary virtue which was refined enough for European roads yet sufficiently robust successfully to endure the harsh conditions often found in the former colonies of the old French Empire, it also gained an admiring audience in rural Australia where distances were vast, roads often rough and mechanics sometimes hard to find.  Among cars using a conventional suspension (no hydraulics, air bellows or other exotica), only Jaguar’s equally remarkable XJ6 (another debutante from 1968) could match its ride quality.  The 504’s headlights were often described as trapezoid but that was never true (on either side of the Atlantic) because not only were no two sides parallel, the outer was actually curved.  At most they could be could be thought trapezoidish or trapezoidesque but some were not even that.  As a means to assist in producing low-cost variants, some were made with a single, circular lamp instead cost-saving measure while versions with four (smaller) were offered in some markets.  In the US this was to satisfy laws introduced as an industry-protection measure while in Australia it was to assist in meeting the local content rules which offered taxation advantages for the assembly plants although the change was popular with rural buyers used to frequently broken lights on their unsealed roads, the round units cheap and available at every gas station or country store.  In November 2010, it was announced President Mahmoud Ahmadinejad (b 1956; president of the Islamic Republic or Iran 2005-2013) would be auctioning his 1977 Peugeot 504 to raise money for a charity dedicated to providing affordable housing for low-income families.  With low mileage and said to be in immaculate condition, there was much interest and what proved to be the most expensive 504 ever made was sold in march 2011 to the highest bidder for US$2.5 million.

Peugeot 504 Coupé: The early headlamp treatment (1969-1974, left) and the later (1974-1983, centre).  The 2018 Peugeot E-Legend concept car (right).

The rather lovely 504 coupé & cabriolet (1969-1983) both eschewed the trapezoidesque, the early versions using four lamps sometimes described a “quartic” but, being rectangles with rounded ends, they’re actually closer to what mathematicians call a “stadium”.  Later models used essentially the same internals but were mounted behind a single lens in a shape called a “rounded rectangle”.  Although not quintessentially “French” like the classic Citroëns (DS, GS, SM, CX), the 504 coupé & cabriolet were elegant and capable and it a shame the French industry had produced nothing to match them in recent decades.  Peugeot’s designers however seem aware of the appeal and in 2018 displayed their E-Legend concept car, an attractive take on the 504 coupé’s lines.  Nothing like it ever reached production and the range remained dreary and predictable.

The trapezoid is a widely used shape for handbags.  Noted handbag fan Lindsay Lohan demonstrates some of the variations.

Bikini

Bikini (pronounced bih-kee-nee

(1) A two-piece bathing suit for women.

(2) A style of brief fitted low on the hip or slightly below.

(3) The name of an atoll in the North Pacific; one of the Marshall Islands and the site of two-dozen odd US nuclear weapon tests between 1946-1958 (with initial capital).

(4) As Bikini State, the UK Ministry of Defence's alert state indicator (1970-2006).

(5) In the retail coffee trade, barista slang applied to smaller variations such as a demitasse (or demi-tasse (half cup), used traditionally to serve espresso).

1946:  Although known as the Eschscholtz Atoll until 1946, the modern English name is derived from the German colonial name Bikini, adopted while part of German New Guinea and was a transliteration from the Marshallese Pikinni (pʲi͡ɯɡɯ͡inʲːi), a construct of Pik (surface) + ni (coconut or surface of coconuts).  Bikini is a noun & proper noun; the noun plural is bikinis. 

Proliferation; variations on the theme of bikini

Bikinis: Lindsay Lohan with former special friend Samantha Ronson (both in bare feet), Los Cabos, Mexico, October 2007.

The swimwear was first so named in 1946, the brief as a stand-alone garment adopting the term in 1960 while the trikini, dating from 1967, was a variation with separate bra cups fastened by Velcro.  A lack of structural integrity doomed the design for the mass-market but trikinis continue to be used by the fashion industry, mostly in static photography where movement is minimalized.  Trikini was at the time etymologically wrong because falsely it presumed bikini a compound with a bi prefix, an assumption not unreasonable because the English prefix bi is derived from the Classical Latin bi, which, like the Ancient Greek counterpart di, means “two”.  However, trikini is now etymologically correct because (1) bikini and its variations have been wholly been absorbed into English with compounds coined as needed and (2) progress in the fashion industry proved so prolific a new suffix (apparently first suggested by US author Bill Safire (1929–2009)), emerged: -kini.  Thus far seen have been:

Monokini (a one-piece swimsuit)

Bikini (a two-piece swimsuit with top & bottom)

Trikini (a type swimsuit which uses three, strategic-placed fabric triangles)

Facekini (a piece of swimwear worn on the head and covering the face and head)

Burkini (a full body bathing suit which includes a hood; a kind of figure-hugging Burqa for swimming of which not all muftis & mullahs (and certainly no ayatollahs) approve)

Mankini (a kind of sling bikini for men)

Bandkini (a swimsuit consisting of strapless bandeau top and bikini bottom)

Halterkini (a swimsuit consisting of halter top and bikini bottom)

Tankini (a bathing suit composed of tank top and the lower half of a bikini)

Skirtini (a two-piece swimsuit consisting of top and short, skirted bottom)

Microkini (a very skimpy bikini)

Slingkini (a one-piece swimsuit resembling the Y-shape frame of a slingshot which is supported by fabric at the neck)

Stringkini (a two-piece swimsuit attached by strings that is scantier and more revealing than a regular bikini)

Sidekini (a swimsuit designed to optimize the side-boob effect)

Camikini (a swimsuit consisting of thin-strapped camisole top and bikini bottom)

Flagkini (a swimsuit top informally created by the wrapping of a flag)

Duckini (a swimsuit made of a stick-on material (not to be confused with Kim Kardashian's endorsement of gaffer’s tape for use as ad-hoc corsetry))

Numokini (a bikini worn without the top (also called Unikini))

Underkini (a swimsuit designed to optimize the under-boob effect (not suitable for all))

Seekini (a translucent or semi-translucent swimsuit)

Hikini (s swimsuit with a higher-profile bottom)

Poligrill's helpful bikini identification chart.

Louis Réard (1896-1984) was a French engineer who took over his mother's lingerie business and the bathing ensemble he designed debuted in 1946.  As a concept it wasn’t new, such things documented by many cultures since antiquity but Réard’s design was minimalist by the standards of the time.  Although it was suggested he choose the name because an exploding A-bomb was his preferred simile for the effect on men, in subsequent interviews he claimed his mind was focused on what he expected expected to be an "explosive commercial and cultural reaction" to his design.  Although originally Réard’s registered trademark (patent number 19431), bikini has long been generic. When first displayed at Paris's Piscine Molitor (a large swimming pool complex) in July 1946, so scandalous did the established catwalk models find the notion of exposed navels that all declined the job so Monsieur Réard was compelled to hire Mademoiselle Micheline Barnardini (b 1927), then an exotic (ie nude) dancer from the Casino de Paris.  For Mlle Barnardini even the skimpiest bikini was more modest than her usual professional lack of attire.   

Le Monde Illustré in August 1947 applied a little of their bourgeois intellectual thuggery in comparing the denuding of the surface of Bikini Atoll by the bomb’s blast wave with the near-elimination of flesh-covering material in the swimsuit:  “Bikini, ce mot cinglant comme l’explosion même...correspondait au niveau du vêtement de plage à un anéantissement de la surface vêtue; à une minimisation extrême de la pudeur”.  (Bikini, a word now of explosions, compares the effect of the state of the clothing at the beach to an annihilation of the dressed surface; an extreme minimization of modesty.)  Even then however it wasn't something all that novel, two-piece swimwear often seen since at least the 1930s and French fashion designer Jacques Heim (1899–1967) early in 1946 had staged a re-launch of his pre-war two-piece swimsuit which he named the Atome, (atoms then much in the public imagination as something very small yet possessing great power) advertising it as "the world's smallest bathing suit".  However, unlike Réard's creation, it covered the navel, most of the buttocks and more of the breasts, enabling M. Réard truthfully to claim the bikini was "smaller than the smallest bathing suit".  The rest is history.

Le Yacht de la Route "Bikini" by Henri Chapron on the chassis of a 1937 Packard Super Eight.

The term “land yacht” came into use in the 1970s to describe the truly huge luxury automobiles which the major US manufactures all produced for most of the decade before emission control legislation and fuel-efficiency standards doomed the breed.  The Cadillacs and Lincolns were the most emblematic but on the basis of length, at 235¼ inches (5975 mm), the 1973 Imperial was actually the biggest.  All were highly inefficient and, despite the dimensions, were frequently comfortable transport only for two although once inside they were enveloped by leather or velour and the driving experience, although not fast by the standards of today (or even years gone by), was truly effortless, smooth and quiet.  So isolated were the occupants from the outside environment that a frequent comment was they seemed “to float down the road”, hence the term “land yacht”.  The dinosaurs of the 1970s however weren’t the first of the breed.  Before in 1940 taking over his mother’s lingerie business Louis Réard was an automobile engineer and one with a flair for publicity so he commissioned coach-builder Henri Chapron (1886-1971 and in the 1960s to become famous for his line of Citroën DS & ID coupés & cabriolets) to build what he called Le Yacht de la Route (the yacht of the road).  Chapron’s design included an actual boat bow, a cabin with portholes, a mast from a yacht and a rear deck where models would pose in bikinis when the car was taken around France on promotional tours.  Originally the coachwork was mounted on the chassis of a 1948 Hotchkiss Artois but its 3.5 litre (212 cubic inch) straight-six proved inadequate to propel to heavy load so it was swapped to that of a 1937 Packard Super Eight, the 6.3 litre (384 cubic inch) straight-eight easily able to cope.

Model Adriana Fenice (b 1994) in bikini.

The curiously named "Bikini State" was the system by which an alert state was defined by the UK's Ministry of Defence (MoD) to warn of non-specific forms of threat, including civil disorder, terrorism or war.  Introduced in 1970, it was in use until 2006 and the MoD's official position has always be "bikini" was a code name selected at random by a computer; those who accept that story are presumably not familiar with the long military tradition of providing misleading answers, either to amuse themselves or confuse others.  There were five Bikini alert states: (1) White which meant essentially there was no indication of a specific or general threat, (2) Black which referred to a situation in which there was heightened concern about internal or external threats, (3) Black Special which indicated an increased likelihood of the conditions which triggered a Black Alert, (4) Amber which confirmed the existence of specific threats or the higher probability of entering a state of armed conflict and (5) Red which covered everything from a specific threat (including the target(s) to actually being in a state of war and at risk of a nuclear strike.  The need for a system which was better adapted to providing advice to the whole population rather than just the military & civil service was acknowledged after the 9/11 attacks in the US when it was recognised the threat environment had shifted since the Cold War and that the whole country should be regarded as "target rich" in much the way the security services treated Northern Ireland.  Accordingly in 2006, the Government adopted a new five layer system: (1) Low, last seen in the brief, optimistic era between the end of the "troubles" in Northern Ireland (1998) and the week of the 9/11 attacks, (2) Moderate which is about as close to "normal" as anyone now reasonably aspires to achieves and suggests folk should be "alert but not alarmed", (3) Substantial which indicates some event is likely, (4) Severe which indicates a heightened level of threat beyond the substantial and (5) Critical which suggests there is intelligence to indicate an imminent attack and security precaution should be elevated to their highest level.

Many countries have similar systems in place although most maintain different arrangements for civilian & military purposes, the latter always tied to specific protocols and procedures.  Some are trans-nation such as those used by the European Union (EU) and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and five-layers used to be the preferred option although this has changed.  In the US the military's DEFCON (defense readiness condition) uses five color-coded levels ranging effecting from "stand easy" to "global thermo-nuclear war is imminent or already begun".  The now defunct civilian Homeland Security Advisory System (HSAS; 2002-2011) used a five-level approach but it was much criticized and since 2011 the US has used National Terrorism Advisory System (NTAS) which is event specific and defined by start and end dates, rather than maintaining the country in some nominal state of alert.

Sala delle Dieci Ragazze (Room of the Ten Girls), a first century AD mosaic in Villa Romana del Casale, Sicily.  For whatever reason, it was a later addition, added atop what's thought to be a conventional geometric mosaic.  

The bikini might in the popular imagination be thought a symbol of Western freedom and something which liberated women from the demands they remain as invisible as possible but the concept of the garment is truly ancient.  Some 2 miles (3.2 km) from the Sicilian town of Piazza Armerina lie the ruins of what would once have been the impressive Roman villa, Villa Romana del Casale.  A UNESCO World Heritage Site thought to have been built early in the fourth century AD, it contains one of the most extraordinary collections of ancient Roman mosaics, all though the works of African artists and artisans.  One creation which has proved of great interest is that which sits in what is popularly known as the Sala delle Dieci Ragazze (Room of the Ten Girls), depicting ten women, nine of whom wearing something in the style of two-piece bathing suits, archeologists suggesting the bottom being a loincloth made cloth or leather and known as a subligaculum, a scanty version of the male perizoma worn both as underwear and sometimes by athletes and slaves.  It was a design which is thought to have spread throughout the empire because archaeologists in Britain discovered during the dig of an old well a leather “thong” that was found to date from shortly after the time of Christ.  Its size and shape was exactly that of a modern bikini bottom and it’s now an exhibit at the Museum of London.

The top part was essentially a breast-band, known also to have been worn in Greece where the garment was known as a mastodeton or apodesmos (a strophium to the Romans).  In deference to comfort, mastodetons are thought often to have been made from linen.  The contribution to fashion is one thing but what interested historians was that the women are clearly participating in sports, their “bikinis” activewear and not swimwear.  Some of the activities are ambiguous but it’s obvious some are running, another is in the throes of throwing a discus while two are engaged in some form of ball sport.  Interestingly, the ball is multi-colored but whether this reflected the nature of sporting equipment in Antiquity or was a piece of artistic license isn’t known.  Of political interest are the young ladies with crowns of roses and palm-fronds, traditionally the prizes awarded to those victorious in athletic competitions so the events were, to some degree, apparently structured.  It’s a myth women in the Roman Empire were always banned from sport although there were restrictions in that men and women competed separately and while, in Athenian tradition, men generally competed naked (something outside the home not permitted for women), the ancient “bikinis” were a compromise which afforded comfort while avoiding unduly exciting any man whose glance might fall upon female flesh.

That the US nuclear tests at Bikini Atoll made the swimsuit a world-wide success was noted by one Australian entrepreneur who, after the British conducted their own tests in October 1952 in the Montebello Archipelago, some 60 miles (100 km) off the north-west coast of Western Australia, attempted to promote his own variation: the Montebello suit (actually a bikini under another name.  The tests, known as Operation Hurricane, came about because the British, fearful of (1) a nuclear-armed Soviet Union, (2) a possibly resurgent Germany and (3) a one-day un-interested United States, were anxious to possess their own independent nuclear deterrent.  The British project proved a success and the UK to this day maintains a boutique-sized but strategically significant array of nuclear weapons and a delivery system which permits them to be aimed at any target on the planet.  The Montebello swimsuit of the early 1950s was not a success but the name has be revived and bikinis using the name are now available.