Safari

Safari (pronounced suh-fahr-ee)

(1) A journey or expedition, for hunting, exploration, or investigation, historically applied especially to expeditions in eastern Africa.

(2) The hunters, guides, vehicles, equipment, etc, forming such an expedition.

(3) Used loosely (sometimes very loosely), any long or adventurous journey or expedition (although usually restricted to non-developed, hot places with abundant wildlife).

(4) To go on a safari; to take part in a safari.

(5) In fashion, as “safari suit”, a men’s outfit of dubious appeal.

1890: From the Swahili safari (journey), from the Arabic سَفَر‎ (safar) (referring to a journey) from safara (to travel) & safarīya (travelling).  Etymologists belief the word “safari” was absorbed into English in 1890, having been documented since 1860s as a foreign word in the sense of “an expedition over country in East Africa lasting days or weeks, particularly for purposes of hunting”.  The Swahili safar (journey) first appeared in English publications in 1858.  From the 1920s, as an adjective “safari” was applied liberally to devices & appliances used on or associated with safaris (safari knife, safari park, safari trailer, safari map etc) but ultimately most influential was the safari jacket, a practical garment (robustly tailored with lots of pockets) which unfortunately would in the 1960s be picked up by the industry as the “safari suit”, perhaps the most derided piece of men’s fashion in the 1970s which, given what that decade produced, was quite an achievement.  The nouns safarier, safarigoer & safariman (all descriptors of “those who go on a safari) seem to have gone extinct but surfari (surfers travelling from beach to beach in search of the best waves) is still sometimes heard though “whale-watching” seems to have replaced “whale safari”.  Safari is a noun, verb & adjective, safaried & safariing are verbs; the noun plural is safaris.

Mercedes-Benz 450 SLC 5.0s, Safari Rally, Kenya, 1979 and Lindsay Lohan on safari, meeting zebras, Mauritius, June 2016.

The big 450 SLC 5.0 was one of the more improbable rally cars but it enjoyed some success in long-distance events and is a footnote in the sport's history as the only V8-powered car to win a European rally; all 450 SLC 5.0s were fitted with an automatic transmission which makes the thing more unusual still.  In motorsport, the annual rally in Kenya was between 1953-1959 known as the “Coronation Safari Rally” and between then and 1974 as the “East African Safari”; subsequently, it was variations of "Safari Rally".  The name “East African Safari Rally” was revived in 2003 as an event for historic rally cars and run biannually (COVID-19 the only interruption, the 2020 event cancelled).

Safari Station Wagons

Chrysler South Africa's advertising for the Valiant Safaris, 1972.

Instead of the 245 (4.0) & 265 (4.3) "Hemi" sixes, the South African cars were fitted with the old 225 (3.6) "slant-six" so the Apartheid-era government's local content rules could be met.  There was no V8 option but to compensate there was the Safari Premium with the US-flavored appliqué (imitation wood) glued to the sides, something not seen in other places.  Somewhat opportunistically, the advertising copy referred to the "Chrysler Charger engine" but technically that was correct, the 225 being for years on the Dodge Charger's option list and in South Africa Safaris used a two-barrel caburetor version rated at 160 horsepower rather than the usual 145 so the wagons were more powerful than the few US coupes with the slant-six.  

Chrysler's UK advertising for the Australian Valiants, the various Safaris & Station Wagons there described with the familiar "Estate".

Autocar Magazine, 18 October, 1966 (left) and the 1974 brochure (right) using images from a photoshoot conducted in the grounds of Windsor Castle.  In 1966, UK prices for the colonial imports ranged between Stg£1795-Stg£2545 and when Motor Magazine in 1966 tested a six-cylinder estate, it was noted the tag of Stg£1945 was about the same of that for a Jaguar 420, the two otherwise having little in common except fuel consumption.  It's not known if the advertising agency ever was tempted to all the things "shooting brakes" a term which had come to be more loosely applied.  

In Australia, during the 1960s and much of the 1970s, Chrysler’s mainstream model was the Valiant (1962-1981), based on the US A-Body (compact) corporate platform.  In 1963 a station wagon (dubbed "Safari) was added to the AP5 range, the name retained in export markets including New Zealand, South Africa and the Pacific.  In New Zealand, the nomenclature rarely changed but the utility models sold there and in the home market as the “Wayfarer”, when exported to South Africa, were badged as “Rustlers”.  After 1973, for Australia & New Zealand the Safari name was dropped in favor of "station wagon" which, although unimaginative, was at least an industry-standard which had been adopted even by Holden which had by then abandoned the curious use of "station sedan".  The notion of a "Safari" must have been judged too exotic for the UK (although some Citroëns station wagons were sold there with the label applied) and the Valiants sold there were, reassuring, named "Estate".  The appearance of a machine like the Valiant (with engines as large as a 5.9 litre (360 cubic inch) V8) in the UK market probably seems curious given that although a “compact” in US terms, it was by European standards unfashionably large but Chrysler, having in 1967 ceased production of the antiquated Humber Super Snipes upon their absorption of the Rootes Group, wanted to plug the gap in their range.  Even by 1967 that gap probably no longer existed and demand, never high, dwindled sharply after 1973, a consequence of (1) the first oil shock and (2) the UK joining the EEC (European Economic Community) which meant the end of the Commonwealth preference scheme, a low tariff regime which was the last relic of the chimera of imperial free trade.  Still, although promotion was only ever half-hearted, the Australian Chryslers could be ordered until 1976.  Ford Australia too flirted with the UK market, arriving also in the mid 1960s but found little more success in convincing the British their six and eight cylinder Falcons, Fairlanes & LTDs made sense on UK roads, the last sold in 1984 after several dismal years.

Safari Seats

Mercedes-Benz 220 SE Coupé (foreground) & cabriolet (background) with standard rear bench seats, Frankfurt, September 1961 (left) & 1965 220 SE coupé with safari seat option (right).

One rarely specified option on the Mercedes-Benz W111 (1961-1971; 220 SE, 250 SE, 280 SE & 280 SE 3.5) & W112 (1962-1967; 300 SE) coupés and cabriolets was the fitting of two individual (bucket) seats in the rear instead of the usual bench.  While not uncommon in the early days of the industry, separate seats in a car’s rear compartment had, by the time the W111 coupé was first displayed at the opening of the Daimler Benz Museum in Stuttgart in February 1961, become rare and but for a few one-offs by coach-builders, the option was unique.  The factory called them “safari seats”, the source of that being a special metal frame which allowed them to be removed and placed on the ground outside, the implication presumably this would be handy for those on safari who wished to sit under a shady tree and watch the zebras.  Whether many of these machines were taken on safari isn’t known but the concept was transferrable to those going on picnics or watching the polo.  On both sides of the Atlantic, the fitting of individual rear-seats caught on for some high-end models but other than in some utility vehicles intended mostly for off-road use, no manufacturer made them removable, although in the 1966 Dodge Charger they could be folded to create additional storage space, a feature appreciated by Allison Parks (1943-2010) who was awarded a pink one for being Playboy magazine's 1966 PotY (Playmate of the Year); Ms Parks used it to take her children to swimming practice so the space was handy.

The Safari Suit

Great moments in the history of the safari suit.  Charles III (b 1948; King of the United Kingdom since 2022) & Diana, Princess of Wales (1961-1997) visiting Uluru (formerly known as Ayers Rock) in Australia's Northern Territory, 1983 (left) and Kim Jong-il (Kim II, 1941-2011; Dear Leader of DPRK (North Korea) 1994-2011) (right).  Despite decades of debate, fashionistas have never agreed who wore it best.

The “safari jacket” was a name applied to a style of clothing which evolved to suit the demands of travel in the sort of places which had become associated with “going on safari”.  The jackets were constructed with a robust material which was resistant to contact with the foliage likely to be encountered and they included fittings like multiple pockets and often some provision for carrying rifle bullets or shotgun shells in a manner which made them easily accessible.  On safari, that was fine but the fashion industry discovered them in the late 1960s and during the following decades actually persuaded some men that the “safari suit” was a good idea.  It was not and not only did it take an unconscionable time a-dying, in the twenty-first century there’s been the odd attempt at a revival.  Men should thus avoid the look but on women a safari suit can be quite alluring.

Excogitate

Excogitate (pronounced eks-koj-i-teyt)

(1) To think out; devise; invent.

(2) To study intently and carefully in order fully to grasp or comprehend.

1520–1530: From the Latin excōgitātus past participle of excōgitāre (to devise, invent, to think out), the construct being ex- (out of, from) + cōgitāre (to think, to ponder).  The ex- prefix was from the Middle English, from words borrowed from the Middle French, from the Latin ex (out of, from), from the primitive Indo-European eǵ- & eǵs- (out).  It was cognate with the Ancient Greek ἐξ (ex) (out of, from), the Transalpine Gaulish ex- (out), the Old Irish ess- (out), the Old Church Slavonic изъ (izŭ) (out) & the Russian из (iz) (from, out of).  The “x” in “ex-“, sometimes is elided before certain constants, reduced to e- (eg ejaculate).  Cogitate was from the Latin cōgitāre, the present active infinitive of cōgitō and related to the old form coitare.  More common words in a similar vein (if not exactly synonymous) include ponder, develop, consider, deliberate, devise, study, contrive, educe, contemplate, frame, weigh, perpend, ruminate & conceive.  Excogitate is a verb, excogitation & excogitator are nouns, excogitable & excogitative are adjectives and excogitated & excogitating are verbs; the most common noun plural is excogitations.

Consider the student learning the English language.  Diligently, they have memorized the meaning of the useful word “cogitate” and, familiar with the concept of the “ex-boyfriend”, move on to “excogitate”, deciding it must mean something like either “used to think”, “no longer thinking” or “not thinking deeply”.  That would be logical but English doesn’t always follow a logical path and “cogitate” & “excogitate” are synonyms and both refer to the act of thinking deeply and carefully about something, the choice of which to use dictated by their nuance.  Cogitate means “to ponder or think deeply or at length about something with the intention of reaching a conclusion or finding a solution”.  Excogitate implies a more intense or rigorous mental effort, often involving a complex or abstract subject matter, suggesting a process of thinking that involves extracting or deducing information from one's own thoughts or memory, or from external sources, and using it to form a new idea or find some creative solution.  In short, “cogitate” implies a reflective, contemplative process, while “excogitate” suggests a more active, intense form of thinking, involving analysis and synthesis.  The difference therefore can be thought of the distinction between the places to which the process goes.

Lindsay Lohan and her lawyer in court, Los Angeles, 2012.

If that splitting of hairs appeals then there’s also academic philosophy where the concept of metacogitate is a thing describing thinking about the thought itself.  The construct was meta- + cogitate and the “meta-” in this case was used as it was in metaphysics to allude to matters fundamental or foundational.  Of course, being philosophy, it could be understood either as the act of thinking about one's own thoughts or a consideration of one’s own cognitive processes and there wasn’t of necessity any connection between metacogitation and metacognition although one could sometimes be found.  Given that, perhaps remarkably, the philosophy departments seem never have dragged into English the Latin verb recōgitāte, the second-person plural present active imperative of recōgitō (I consider or reflect; I examine or inspect).

Float

Float (pronounced floht)

(1) To rest, move or remain on the surface of a liquid (to be buoyant; to be supported by a liquid of greater density, such that part (of the object or substance) remains above the surface) or in the air.

(2) By metaphor, to move lightly and gracefully.

(3) By metaphor, information or items circulating.

(4) Figuratively, to vacillate (often followed by between).

(5) As applied to currencies, to be allowed freely to fluctuate in the foreign-exchange market instead of being exchanged at a fixed or managed rate.

(6) In the administration of interest rates, periodically to change according to money-market conditions.

(7) In the equities markets, the offering of previously privately held stock on public boards; an offering of shares in a company (or units in a trust) to members of the public, normally followed by a listing on a stock exchange.

(8) In the bond markets, an offering.

(9) In theatre, to lay down (a flat), usually by bracing the bottom edge of the frame with the foot and allowing the rest to fall slowly to the floor.

(10) An inflated bag to sustain a person in water; life preserver.

(11) In plumbing, in certain types of tanks, cisterns etc, a device, as a hollow ball, that through its buoyancy automatically regulates the level, supply, or outlet of a liquid.

(12) In nautical jargon, a floating platform attached to a wharf, bank, or the like, and used as a landing; any kind of buoyancy device.

(13) In aeronautics, a hollow, boat-like structure under the wing or fuselage of a seaplane or flying boat, keeping it afloat in water (aircraft so equipped sometimes called “float planes”).

(14) In angling, a piece of cork or other material for supporting a baited line in the water and indicating by its movements when a fish bites.

(15) In zoology, an inflated organ that supports an animal in the water; the gas-filled sac, bag or body of a siphonophore; a pneumatophore.

(16) A vehicle bearing a display, usually an elaborate tableau, in a parade or procession.

(17) In banking, uncollected checks and commercial paper in process of transfer from bank to bank; funds committed to be paid but not yet charged against the account.

(18) In metal-working, a single-cut file (a kind of rasp) of moderate smoothness.

(19) In interior decorating, a flat tool for spreading and smoothing plaster or stucco.

(20) In stonemasonry, a tool for polishing marble.

(21) In weaving and knitting, a length of yarn that extends over several rows or stitches without being interworked.

(22) In commerce, a sum of physical cash used to provide change for the till at the start of a day's business.

(23) In geology and mining, loose fragments of rock, ore, etc that have been moved from one place to another by the action of wind, water etc.

(24) To cause something to be suspended in a liquid of greater density.

(25) To move in a particular direction with the liquid in which one is floating (as in “floating downstream” etc).

(26) In aviation, to remain airborne, without touching down, for an excessive length of time during landing, due to excessive airspeed during the landing flare.

(27) To promote an idea for discussion or consideration.

(28) As expression indicating the viability of an idea (as in “it’ll never float”, conveying the same sense as “it’ll never fly”).

(29) In computer (graphics, word processing etc), to cause an element within a document to “float” above or beside others; on web pages, a visual style in which styled elements float above or beside others.

(30) In UK use, a small (often electric) vehicle used for local deliveries, especially in the term “milk float” (and historically, the now obsolete “coal float”).

(31) In trade, to allow a price to be determined by the markets as opposed to by rule.

(32) In insurance, premiums taken in but not yet paid out.

(33) In computer programming, as floating-point number, a way of representing real numbers (ie numbers with fractions or decimal points) in a binary format

(34) A soft beverage with a scoop of ice-cream floating in it.

(35) In poker, a manoeuvre in which a player calls on the flop or turn with a weak hand, with the intention of bluffing after a subsequent community card.

(36) In knitting, one of the loose ends of yarn on an unfinished work.

(37) In transport, a car carrier or car transporter truck or truck-and-trailer combination; a lowboy trailer.

(38) In bartending, the technique of layering of liquid or ingredients on the top of a drink.

(39) In electrical engineering, as “float voltage”, an external electric potential required to keep a battery fully charged

(40) In zoology, the collective noun for crocodiles (the alternative being “bask”).

(41) In automotive engineering, as “floating axle”, a type of rear axle used mostly in heavy-duty vehicles where the axle shafts are not directly attached to the differential housing or the vehicle chassis but instead supported by bearings housed in the wheel hubs.

Pre 1000: From the Middle English floten, from the Old English flotian (to float), from the Proto-Germanic flutōną (to float), from the primitive Indo-European plewd- & plew- (to float, swim, fly).  It was cognate with the Saterland Frisian flotje (to float), the West Frisian flotsje (to float), the Dutch vlotten (to float), the German flötzen & flößen (to float), the Swedish flotta (to float), the Lithuanian plaukti, the Middle Low German vloten & vlotten (to float, swim), the Middle Dutch vloten, the Old Norse flota, the Icelandic fljóta, the Old English flēotan (to float, swim), the Ancient Greek πλέω (pléō), the Lithuanian plaukti, the Russian пла́вать (plávatʹ) and the Latin plaustrum (wagon, cart).  It was akin to the Old English flēotan & Old Saxon flotōn (root of fleet).  The meaning “to drift about, passively to hover" emerged circa 1300 while the transitive sense of “to lift up, to cause to float (of water etc)” didn’t come into use for another 300-odd years and the notion of “set (something) afloat” was actually originally figurative (originally of financial matters) and noted since 1778.  Float was long apparently restricted to stuff in the water and didn’t come into use to refer to things in the air until the 1630s, this extending to “hover dimly before the eyes” by at least 1775.   In medicine, the term “floating rib” was first used in 1802, so called because the anterior ends are not connected to the rest.  The Proto-Germanic form was flutojanan, from the primitive Indo-European pleu (to flow) which endures in modern use as pluvial.

Etymologists have concluded the noun was effectively a merger in the Middle English of three related Old English nouns: flota (boat, fleet), flote (troop, flock) & flot (body of water, sea), all from the same source as the verb.  The early senses were the now-mostly-obsolete ones of the Old English words: the early twelfth century “state of floating"”, the mid thirteenth century “swimming”, the slightly later “a fleet of ships; a company or troop” & the early fourteenth century “stream or river”.  From circa 1300 it has entered the language of fishermen to describe the attachments used to add buoyancy to fishing lines or nets and some decades later it meant also “raft”.  The meaning “a platform on wheels used for displays in parades etc” dates from 1888 and developed either from the manner they percolated down a street on from the vague resemblance to flat-bottomed boat which had been so described since the 1550s.  The type of fountain drink, topped with a scoop of ice cream was first sold in 1915.

The noun floater (one who or that which floats) dates from 1717 as was the agent noun from the verb.  From 1847 it was used in political slang to describe an independent voter (and in those days with the implication their vote might be “for sale”), something similar to the modern “swinging voter”.  By 1859 it referred to “one who frequently changes place of residence or employment” and after 1890 was part of US law enforcement slang meaning “dead body found in the water”.  The noun flotation dates from 1765, the spelling influenced by the French flotaison.  The adverb afloat was a direct descendent from the Old English aflote.  In idiomatic use, it was the boxer Muhammad Ali (1942–2016) who made famous the phrase “float like a butterfly; sting like a bee” and “whatever floats your boat” conveys the idea that individuals should be free to pursue that which they enjoy without being judged by others.  To “float someone’s boat” is to appeal to them in some way.  Float is a noun & verb, floater is a noun, floated is a verb, floating is a noun, verb & adjective and floaty is a noun & adjective; the noun plural is floats.

Lindsay Lohan floating in the Aegean, June 2022.

In the modern age, currencies began to be floated in the early 1970s after the collapse of the Bretton Woods system (1944) under which most major currencies were fixed in relation to the US dollar (which was fixed to gold at a rate of US$35 per ounce).  That didn’t mean the exchange rates were static but the values were set by governments (in processes called devaluation & revaluation) rather than the spot market and those movements could be dramatic: In September 1949, the UK (Labour) government devalued Sterling 30.5% against the US dollar (US$4.03 to 2.80).  The Bretton Woods system worked well (certainly for developed nations like the US, the UK, Japan, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and much of western Europe) in the particular (and historically unusual) circumstances of the post-war years but by the late 1960s, with the US government's having effectively printed a vast supply of dollars to finance expensive programs like the Vietnam War, the nuclear arms build-up, the “Great Society” and the space programme, and social programs, surplus dollars rapidly built up in foreign central banks and increasingly these were being shipped back to the US to be exchanged for physical gold bars.  In 1971, the Nixon administration (1969-1974) responded to the problem of their dwindling gold reserves by suspending the convertibility, effectively ending the Bretton Woods system and making floating exchange probably inevitable, the trend beginning when Japan floated the Yen in 1973.

A Bloomberg chart tracking the effect of shifting the US dollar from its link with gold to a fiat currency.  Due to this and other factors (notably the oil price), in the 1970s, the bills of the 1960s were paid.

Others however moved more slowly, many adopting the tactic of the Australian government which as late as 1983 was still running what was known as a “managed float”, an arrangement whereby the prime-minister, the treasurer and the head of the treasury periodically would meet and, using a “a basket of currencies”, set the value of the Australian dollar against the greenback and the other currencies (the so-called “cross-rates”).  Now, most major Western nations have floating currencies although there is sometimes some “management” of the “float” by the mechanism of central banks intervening by buying or selling.  The capacity for this approach to be significant is however not as influential as once it was because the numbers in the forex (foreign exchange) markets are huge, dwarfing the trade in commodities bonds or equities; given the volumes, movements of even fractions of a cent can mean overnight profits or losses in the millions.  Because some "floats" are not exactly "free floats" in which the market operates independently, there remains some suspicion that mechanisms such as "currency pegs" (there are a remarkable variety of pegs) and other methods of fine tuning can mean there are those in dark little corners of the forex world who can benefit from these manipulations.  Nobody seem prepared to suggest there's "insider trading" in the conventional sense of the term but there are some traders who appear to be better informed that others. 

Ziggurat

Ziggurat (pronounced zik-kur-at, zik-u-rat or zig-oo-rat)

(1) In the architecture of the ancient Babylonians and Assyrians, a temple of Sumerian origin in the form of a pyramidal tower, consisting of a number of stories and having about the outside a broad ascent winding round the structure, presenting the appearance of a series of terraces.

(2) In architecture, any structure similar in appearance.

(3) In statistics and mathematical modeling, as ziggurat algorithm, an algorithm for pseudorandom number sampling, relying on an underlying source of uniformly-distributed random numbers as well as computed tables.

1875–1880: Various cited as from the Akkadian word ziqquratu; from the Assyrian ziqqurati (summit, height) or from an extinct Semitic language, derived from a verb meaning "to build on a flat space." The various spellings were zikkurrat, ziqqurrat, ziqqurat (rare) and ziggurat.  Ziggurat is a noun and zigguratic & zigguratical are adjectives; the noun plural is ziggurate or ziggurats.

The Chogha Zanbil ziggurat was built circa 1250 BC by Untash-Napirisha, King of Elam, probably to honour the Elamite god Inshushinak.  Destroyed in 640 BC by Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria, part of it was excavated between 1951-1961 by Roman Ghirshman (1895-1979), a Ukrainian-born French archeologist who specialized in ancient Persia.  It was the first Iranian site to be added to UNESCO’s World Heritage List.

Ziggurats were massive structures with particular architectural characteristics.  They served as part of a temple complex in the various local religions of Mesopotamia and the flat highlands of what is now western Iran.  Sumer, Babylonia, and Assyria were home to about twenty-five ziggurats.  The shape of a ziggurat makes it clearly identifiable.  It has a platform base which is close to square with sides that recede inward as the structure rises and a flat top presumed to have supported some form of a shrine.  Sun-baked bricks form the core of a ziggurat, with fire-baked bricks used for the outer faces and unlike the Egyptian pyramids, a ziggurat was a solid structure with no internal chambers, an external staircase or spiral ramp provided access to the top platform.  The handful of ziggurats still visible are ruins, but, based on the dimensions of their bases, it’s estimated they may have been as much as 150 feet (46m) high.  It’s possible the terraced sides were planted with shrubs and flowering plants, and some scholars have suggested the legendary Hanging Gardens of Babylon (one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World), was a ziggurat.  Ziggurats were some of the oldest structures of ancient religions, the first examples dating from circa 2200 BC and the last circa 500 BC; only a few of the Egyptian pyramids predate the oldest ziggurats.  The Tower of Babel is thought to have been a ziggurat.

Depiction of Lindsay Lohan in ziggurat dress, part of the Autumn-Winter 1994-1995 "Staircase Pleats" collection by Japanese designer Issey Miyake (1938-2022).  Miyake San was noted for his technology-focused clothing designs.

Bilateral

Bilateral (pronounced bahy-lat-er-uhl)

(1) Pertaining to, involving, or affecting two or both sides, factions, parties, or the like.

(2) Located on opposite sides of an axis; two-sided, especially when of equal size, value etc.

(3) In anatomy and biology, pertaining to the right and left sides of a structure (especially in the region furthest from the median plane).

(4) In contract law, binding the parties to reciprocal obligations.

(5) In anthropology, relating to descent through both maternal and paternal lineage.

(6) In the British education system, a course combining academic and technical components.

(7) In physics, acting or placed at right angles to a line of motion or strain.

(8) In phonetics and phonology, of a consonant (especially the English clear l), pertaining to sounds generated by partially blocking the egress of the airstream with the tip of the tongue touching the alveolar ridge, leaving space on one or both sides of the occlusion for air passage.

1775: The construct is bi + lateral.  Bi-, in the sense of the word-forming element (two, having two, twice, double, doubly, twofold, once every two etc) is from the from Latin bis (twice) or bīnus (double), from the Old Latin which was cognate with the Sanskrit dvi-, the Ancient Greek di- & dis-, the Old English twi- and the German zwei- (twice, double), all from the primitive Indo-European PIE root dwo- (two), ultimate source also of the Modern English duo.  Bilateral is a noun & adjective, bilateralist, bilateralization, bilaterality & bilateralism are nouns and bilaterally is an adverb; the noun plural is bilaterals.

It may have been in use before but was certainly nativized during the sixteenth century.  The occasionally bin- before vowels was a form which originated in French, not Latin although it’s suggested this may have been influenced by the Latin bini (twofold), the familiar example being “binary”.  In computing, it’s most associated with zero-one distinction in the sense of off-on and in chemistry, it denotes two parts or equivalents of the substance referred to although there are rules and conventions of use to avoid confusion with stuff named using the Greek prefix di- such as carbon dioxide (CO₂).  In general use, words built with bi- prefix can cause confusion.  While biennial (every two years) seems well understood, other constructs probably due to rarity remain, ambiguous: fortnightly is preferable to biweekly and using “every two months” or “twice a month” as required removes all doubt.

Lateral was first adopted as verb in the 1640s from the fourteenth century Old French lateral, directly from Latin laterālis (belonging to the side), a derivation of latus (genitive lateris) (the side, flank of humans or animals, lateral surface) of uncertain origin.  As a noun, the precise definition "situated on either side of the median vertical longitudinal plane of the body" is from 1722.   Equilateral (all sides equal) was first used in mathematics in the 1560s, a borrowing from the Latin aequilateralis, aequi- being the suffix- meaning “equal”; contra-lateral (occurring on the opposite side) is from 1871; the adjective ipsilateral (on the same side of the body), bolting on the Latin ipse- suffix (self) dates from 1907; the use in US football to describe a lateral pass seems to have appeared in print first in 1934.  Multilateral and trilateral seem to have been seventeenth century inventions from geometry, the more familiar modern applications in international diplomacy not noted until 1802.

Conventions of use

Although one would have to be imaginative, with the Latin, there’s little limit to the compound words one could construct to describe the number of sides of a thing.  The words, being as unique as whole numbers, would also be infinite.  Whether many would be linguistically useful is doubtful; sextilateral may mislead and ūndēquadrāgintālateral (thirty nine sided) seems a complicated solution to a simple problem.

Unilateral             One-sided
Bilateral               Two-sided
Trilateral              Three-sided
Quadrilateral        Four-sided
Quintilateral         Five-sided
Sextilateral          Six-sided
Septilateral          Seven-sided
Octolateral           Eight-sided
Novilateral           Nine-sided
Decilateral           Ten-sided
Centilateral          Hundred-sided
Millelateral           Thousand-sided

The modern convention appears to be to stop at trilateral and thereafter, when describing gatherings of four or more, adopt multilateral or phrases like four-power or six-party.  Trilateral seem still manageable, adopted not only by governmental entities but also by the Trilateral Commission (founded in 1973 with members from Japan, the US, and Europe), a remarkably indiscrete right-wing think-tank.  However, in the organically pragmatic evolution of English, there it tends to stop, quadrilateral now most associated with Euclidean plane geometry (there are seven quadrilateral polygons) and used almost exclusively in that discipline and other strains of mathematics.  Outside of mathematics, it was only in the formal language of diplomacy that quadrilateral was used with any frequency.  The agreement of 15 July 1840, (negotiated between Lord Palmerston (1784-1865; variously UK prime-minister or foreign secretary on several occasions 1830-1865) and Nicholas I (1796–1855; Tsar of Russia 1825-1855) to tidy up things in the Mediterranean) between Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia was formalised as a quadrilateral treaty but the word fell from favour with quadruple alliance preferred for a later European arrangement.

Bilateral diplomacy: Lindsay Lohan meeting with Recep Tayyip Erdoğan (b 1954; prime-minister or president of the Republic of Türkiye since 2003), Ankara, 27 January 2017.

Although many of the wonks in the foreign policy establishment like to dream of a world in which everything is settled by multi-lateral discussions, in the world of the realists, it's understood the core of conflicts (which are the central dynamic of international relations) are bilateral.  Accordingly, most efforts are devoted to bilateral discussions.  In the business of predictions, it's also the relationships between two states which absorbs most of the thoughts of pundits and the long-term projections of those in the field can make interesting reading, decades later.  In 1988, Richard Nixon (1913-1994; US president 1969-1974) published 1999: Victory Without War, which with no false modesty he suggested was "...a how-to guide in foreign police for whomever was elected president in November 1988".  Given that, it's not surprising one passage has attracted recent comment: "...in the twenty-first century the Sino-US relationship will be one of the most important, and one of the most mutually beneficial, bilateral relationships in the world."  Things do appear to have worked out differently but there is a school of thought that the leadership of Xi Jinping (b 1953; general secretary of the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and paramount leader of the People's Republic of China (PRC) since 2013) is an aberration and that his replacement is likely to be one who pursues a more cooperative foreign and economic policy because that is more likely to be in China's long-term (ie a century ahead) interest.

A quadrilateral meeting to discuss German war guilt reparations and allied debts accumulated during World War I (1914-1918): Raymond Poincaré (1860–1934; President of France 1913-1920, left), Andrew Bonar Law (1858–1923; Prime Minister of the United Kingdom 1922-1923. centre-left), Benito Mussolini (1883-1945; Duce (leader) & Prime-Minister of Italy 1922-1943, centre right) and Georges Theunis (1873–1966; Prime Minister of Belgium 1921-1925 & 1934-1935, right), 10 Downing Street, London, December 1922.

This was an obscure photograph which until the twenty-first century had appeared only in some specialist history texts but as the internet achieved critical mass memes became a thing and Mussolini’s sanpaku eyes were a gift for the meme-makers, most captions suggesting the duce may have had a sudden premonition of his own unfortunate end although others offered: “I feel naked without a moustache”, “I think I have imposter syndrome”, “Oh God, I just pooped my pants”, “One of these men may be a Freemason but I don't know which” and “I wonder if they can tell I'm on drugs”.  However, although not noted as a mystic, he may also have sensed impending death “sitteth at the right hand”, Andrew Bonar Law then having only months to live.

Serving as the UK prime minister for seven months between October 1922 and May 1923, it’s ironic Andrew Bonar Law is now remembered only because of the memorable title of his biography (The Unknown Prime Minister. The Life and Times of Andrew Bonar Law, 1858–1923 (1955)) by Tory historian Robert Norman (Baron Blake, 1916–2003), something borrowed from a chance remark at Law’s funeral by Henry Asquith (1852–1928; UK prime minister 1908-1916): “We’re burying the unknown prime minister next to the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier.”  Law deserves more than that footnote because that he even achieved the office was emblematic of both a changing country and a changing party.  He was preferred over Lord Curzon (1859–1925), a glittering former foreign secretary and Viceroy of India; never again would seriously it be contemplated a prime-minister might sit in the House of Lords.  Unexpectedly diagnosed with an inoperable throat cancer, Law resigned and within six months was dead.      

Rare too is the more recent diplomatic creation, the pentalateral (five-power) treaty of which there appear to have been but two.  One was signed on 23 December 1950 between the United States, France, Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam.  It didn’t end well.  The other pentalateral treaty was sealed in Tehran during October 2007 between Azerbaijan, Iran, Kazakhstan, Russia and Turkmenistan, the littoral countries of the Caspian Sea and was a mechanism to avoid squabbles while carving up resources.  Some assemblies are better described in other ways.  When the five permanent members of the UN Security Council (China, France, Russia, the UK & the US) plus Germany formed a now defunct standing committee to deal with issues raised by Iran’s nuclear programme, although a sextilateral, it was instead dubbed P5+1 although in Brussels, the eurocrats preferred E3+3.

The chief negotiators of the six-party talks on North Korea’s nuclear program, left to right: Sergey Razov (b 1953; Russia), Christopher Hill (b 1952; United States), Kenichirō Sasae (b 1951; Japan), Wu Dawei (b 1946; China), (Chun Yung-woo, b 1952; South Korea), Kim Kye-gwan (b 1943; North Korea).  Those learning English will find the conventional tool of surface analysis produces a misleading meaning if they deconstruct the elements of "sextilateral".  Here, a spokesman for six men briefs the media about their sextilateral, Diaoyutai State Guesthouse, Beijing, China, 23 December 2006.

Luddite

Luddite (pronounced luhd-ahyt)

(1) A member of any of various bands of workers in England (1811–1816) organized to destroy manufacturing machinery, under the belief that its use diminished employment.

(2) Someone opposed or resistant to new technologies or technological change.

(3) Of or relating to the Luddites

1805–1815: Said to be named after a Mr Ned Ludd, a Leicestershire worker who in the late eighteenth century, a fit of rage destroyed mechanical knitting machines he believed were threatening his livelihood by displacing him from his job.  There is doubt (1) whether there was an actual mill worker called Ned Ludd and (2) whether the famous act of industrial sabotage really happened in the circumstances described.  The origin of the name Ludd can be traced to the ancient Anglo-Saxon tribes of the British Isles and was occupational, used by those employed as pages or servants, the Old English Ladde a term which described a household servant.  That’s generally accepted among genealogists but there are sources which note that in the Old English and Scotch, the word lade meant “a canal or duct for water” and that Ludd evolved as a geographical name, used to describe one who worked near or lived on the banks of a waterway.  It’s entirely possible the two forms evolved separately and while the name was probably in use earlier, the first traces of it in the parish records of England appear circa 1100 variously as Ladda, Ladde, le Ladd, Ludd & Ludde.  Variations in spelling were common and it wasn’t until the late Middle English that a widespread standardization can be said to have begun and because elements of Greek, the various flavours of Latin, French and Germanic languages mixed with the native tongues of the British Isles, the influences were many, the differences in pronunciation accounting for at least some of the variations.  Related to what would become the lineage of Ludd included Ladd, Ladde, Laddey, Ladds, Lade, Ladey, Laddy and others.  The -ite suffix was from the French -ite, from the Old French, from the Latin -ītēs, from the Ancient Greek -ῑ́της (-ī́tēs).  It had a wide application including (1) the formation of nouns denoting the followers or adherents of a individual, doctrine or movement etc, (2) the formation of nouns denoting descendants of a certain historic (real or mythical) figure (widely used of biblical identities), (3) the formations of demonyms, (4) in geology the formation of nouns denoting rocks or minerals, (5) in archeology, the formation of nouns denoting fossil organisms, (6) in biology & pathology to form nouns denoting segments or components of the body or an organ of the body, (7) in industry & commerce to form nouns denoting the product of a specified process or manufactured product & (8) in chemistry to form names of certain chemical compounds (historically especially salts or esters of acids with names with the suffix –ous).  Luddite & Ludditism are nouns; the noun plural is Luddites.

The Luddites were a social movement of textile workers in England during the early nineteenth century who protested against the introduction into factories of machinery, their concern being their jobs would be lost and they and their families would face destitution because they would be forced into manual labor at a very low rate of pay.  Real though the movement was, there is no documentary evidence to support the suggestion a Mr Ned Ludd was a real figure associated with the Luddites and the English parish records of the era are comprehensive and regarded as accurate.  Historians have trawled through the ledgers covering the relevant decades and have been unable to verify that a Mr Ned Ludd was ever employed in the factories.  The consensus is that the identity of Ned Ludd was a construct with which the cause of the workers could be identified although whether the name emerged organically from the movement or was created by a writer as a narrative device is unknown.

Lindsay Lohan with sledge-hammer demonstrating a Luddite technique by attacking Volvo.  This wasn’t an industrial protest and was actually an event staged to protest about the cancellation of a television show.  Actually, a sledge-hammer or some other suitable tool may have been what the Luddites used for their sabotage.  English picked up sabotage from the French saboter (deliberately to damage, wreck or botch), used originally to refer to the tactic used in industrial disputes by workers wearing the wooden shoes called sabots who disrupted production in various ways.  The persistent myth is that the origin of the term lies in the practice of workers throwing the wooden sabots into factory machinery to interrupt production but the tale appears apocryphal, one account even suggesting sabot-clad workers were simply considered less productive than others who had switched to leather shoes, roughly equating the term sabotage with inefficiency.

Even the extent to which weavers (and other factory workers) actually sabotaged machines in the manner of the legendary of Ned Ludd is unclear and while it clear from the reports of the time there were instances of sabotage, it does appear they were sporadic and opportunistic acts and certainly not part of a planned movement, much less a revolutionary one.  However, the term has endured to be applied broadly to encompass anyone who opposes new technology or social change and it’s now rarely used with any hit the recipient is contemplating violent resistance.  In this sense, the term is often used in a pejorative way to describe individuals or groups who are seen as reactionary or obstructionist.  Ludditism can exist even at high technological levels, some users accustomed to the familiarity of certain apps or operating systems resistant to change, usually on the basis that the change offers no benefits and sometimes even brings disadvantages.

Tamper

Tamper (pronounced tam-per)

(1) To meddle, especially for the purpose of altering, damaging, or misusing (usually followed by with).

(2) To make changes in something, especially in order to falsify (usually followed by with).

(3) Secretly or improperly to engage in something; to engage in underhand or corrupt dealings, especially in order to influence improperly (usually followed by with); to use corrupt practices such as bribery or blackmail.

(4) In the profession of blasting, an employee who tamps (to fill a hole containing an explosive with dirt or clay before blasting) or a device used to tamp.

(5) As “jury tampering”, an attempt by various means to influence a member or members of a jury.

(6) A device used to pack down tobacco in a pipe.

(7) In the construction of thermo-nuclear weapons, a casing around the core to increase specific efficiency by reflecting neutrons and delaying the expansion.

(8) In rail transport, a railway vehicle used to tamp down ballast.

(9) In law, to attempt to practice or administer something (especially medicine) without sufficient knowledge or qualifications (obsolete).

(10) In North America, to discuss future contracts with a player, against the rules of various sanctioning bodies in professional sports.

1560–1570: From the Middle English tamper, From the Middle French temprer (to temper, mix, meddle) and a doublet of temper.  The word began in Middle English as a verb, a figurative use of tamper “to work in clay etc, mixing it thoroughly”, probably originally a variant of the verb temper (and that original spelling persisted in places as late as the late eighteenth century), the shift to “tamper” possibly influenced by the dialectal pronunciation of workmen engaged in the process.  The noun tamper (one employed to tamp) emerged circa 1865 as an agent noun from the verb and almost simultaneously was used also as a descriptor of devices used for tamping.  The adjective tamperproof (also tamper-proof) dates from 1886 and the related forms (anti-tampering, tamper-evident, tamper-resistant) were coined as technology evolved.  Tamper & tampering are nouns & verbs, tamperer is a noun, tamperproof is a noun & adjective and tampered & tamperest are verbs; the common noun plural is tamperers.

The (almost) tamper-proof SCRAM

Alcohol monitoring bracelets are claimed by the manufacturer to be tamper-proof (as opposed to the less confident “tamper-resistant” sometimes used) and on the basis of the findings of the last decade-odd they may be close to correct.  The devices used to be marketed as the Secure Continuous Remote Alcohol Monitor (SCRAM) but SCRAM Systems re-branded as Alcohol Monitoring Systems Inc (AMS) and change the product name to AMS bracelets although in real-world use, both AMS SCRAM bracelets and the old SCRAM remain commonly heard.  Quite why they’ve always been called bracelets when, being attached around the ankle, they should properly be called anklets, is one of the mysteries of modern English.  One reason a SCRAM is so hard successfully to tamper with is its very simplicity: It keeps track of the wearer's alcohol intake by a sample of their sweat.  When someone drinks liquor, some 1% of it is emitted through the skin's pores and when these molecules are detected by a SCRAM’s sensors, the content is measured and recorded.  The sensors pass the data to an analysis chip which is calibrated to gauge exactly how much alcohol was consumed, this information transmitted wirelessly to an AMS server which hourly passes the findings to whichever court (or their agent) ordered the fitting of the SCRAM.

Lindsay Lohan in AMS SCRAM bracelet.

The simplicity of the process means that even if the wearer tampers with it by plunging their foot into cold water (thereby stopping the sweating), even that would flag a waring because the reading would be recorded as aberrant in the hourly data transmission and the inconsistency would trigger a response from the court.  Apparently, offenders are informed of the efficiency of the device when fitted but the manufacturer has noted some innovative attempts to bluff the booze box.  Some have tried to place cellophane, aluminium foil, animal membrane or condoms between skin sensor, others attempting to emulate human skin by using baloney, salami, sliced ham or even chicken skin.  All attempts have been defeated however because SCRAMs include other sensors including one which monitors temperature and another which triggers an alarm if the strap is stretched beyond a certain point.  Human skin has specific properties and if variations on an acceptable range of those parameters are detected, there’s an infrared beam which measures the volume of light reflected by the skin.  Cellophane, foil and other surfaces all trip the infrared alarm as they reflect differently than human skin.

Another popular attempt at tampering turned out to be known as “spiking the bracelet”, the preferred technique being liberally to spray the ankle with a perfume or other topical substance known to have a high alcohol content.  What this does is induce the sensor to report an impossibly high alcohol level and although it certainly masks any actual alcoholic intake, such tampering is itself a violation of the terms imposed by the court and an offender can be brought before a judge who may revoke the order imposing the use of the SCRAM (regarded as a privilege) and impose an immediate custodial sentence.