Largo

Largo (pronounced lahr-goh)

(1) Slow; in a broad, dignified style.

(2) A movement in this style in music; performed slowly and broadly.

1675-1685: From the Italian Largo (slow, broad), from the Classical Latin largus (large, abundant).  In music, as an adjective it generally means "slow in time" and, as a noun, a movement to be performed in such style.  Composers use the modifying adjectives larghet′to to indicate "somewhat slow; not so slow as long; a movement in somewhat slow time & larghis′simo for "extremely slow".

Context matters

In music, largo is an Italian tempo marking.  It translates literally as “broadly”, hence the name of Florida’s Key Largo island chain but to a conductor or musician, it means “play at a slower tempo”.  In composition, the language of tempo markings is nuanced for while both largo and adagio signify a slowing of pace, they convey different meanings to which composers can also add refinements such as the emotionally manipulative bolt-ons giocoso (merry), mesto (sad) and nobilmente (noble).

Adagio (music performed in a slow, leisurely manner, borrowed circa 1745 from the Italian where the construct was ad (at) +‎ agio (ease), from the Vulgar Latin adiacens, present participle of adiacere (to lie at, to lie near), the noun sense in music to describe "a slow movement" dating from 1784) is used also in Italian traffic management (one of public administration’s more challenging assignments), appearing on Italian road signs to suggest a lower speed but drivers would never see a sign urging largo.  Except in musical notation largo means broad, a word of dimension or perspective, the use in music metaphorical as one might speak of the voice of a soprano “darkening” as they age and thus it can be baffling when composer uses largo in its ordinary sense.  In Gioachino Rossini's (1792–1868) The Barber of Seville (1816), a famously fast-paced aria is called "Largo al factotum" but this is not an instruction to the conductor but just a title; the translation being “make way (ie provide a broad space) for the servant”.  Factotum, known in English since 1556, is from the Medieval Latin factotum (do everything) and is used usually to describe a servant or assistant assigned to general duties.  Even in musical notation, the use of largo and adagio wasn’t always consistent among composers.  Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–1778), remembered as the philosopher who loomed over the French revolution, was also a composer and in his 1768 Dictionary of Music insisted largo was the slowest of all tempo markings but for others it lay somewhere between adagio and andante (in musical direction meaning "moderately slow", a 1742 borrowing from the Italian andante, suggesting "walking" present participle of andare (to go), from the Vulgar Latin ambitare, from the Classical Latin ambitus, past participle of ambire (to go round, go about), the construct being amb- (around), from the primitive Indo-European root ambhi- (around) + ire (go), from ei- (to go)).  Rousseau's definition is now preferred.

While Rousseau didn’t expand on this, largo does by his era seem to have come to be used to signify an expression of emotional intensity, Ombra mai fù, the opening aria from Georg Friederich Händel's (1685–1759) 1738 opera Serse being such an exemplar it’s known famously as “Handel’s Largo from Xerxes”.  A hint of Handel’s intention is his marking on the original score being the diminutive larghetto.  Joseph Haydn (1732–1809) restricted largo only to the personal, emotional passages whereas Ludwig van Beethoven (1770–1827) could use it also as a device of controlled tension, a slowing of tempo almost to a pause.  Others followed Handel, even if the largo became, after Beethoven, less fashionable, the cor anglais-haunted largo from Anton Dvořák's (1841–1904) 1893 Symphony No. 9 in E minor (From the New World) as illustrative of the technique as any.

Comrade Shostakovich (Dmitri Shostakovich 1906–1975) followed the textbook.  Having his own reasons for needing to write something to make people feel rather than think, on its first performance in 1937, the largo in his Symphony No 5 brought tears from the audience.  Pleased to have pleased the Kremlin, Shostakovich subsequently drew lachrymosity where he could, both the first movement of Symphony No 6 (1939) and three movements of the Eighth Quartet (1960) claw slowly at the emotions.  The motif is familiar from his earlier cello & violin concertos, other symphonies and a piano sonata.

Tangerine Dream, Zeit (1972).  Largo in four movements.

Zeit was one of the more starkly uncompromising pieces of the "dark ambient" music European experimentalists would explore for a couple of decades.  Four often languid movements, each a side of the two vinyl disks, it was underpinned by the then still novel Moog synthesizer and the jarring interruption of the strings of the Cologne Cello Quarte.  Whatever Zeit was, it proved to be either unique or the final evolution of the form, depending on one's view of earlier experiments with the possibilities offered by electronics.  Tangerine Dream certainly never pursued the concept but their work impressed film director Bill Friedkin (b 1935) who commissioned them to produce the soundtrack for Sorcerer (1977); at the time, the music was better received than the film although views have changed in the decades since and Sorcerer now enjoys a cult-following.  Friedkin later remarked that had he earlier known of the band, he'd have used them for The Exorcist (1973).  

Austere and gloomy, Zeit ("time" in German) was interesting experience if listened to in darkness, on headphones; acid helped.  Efforts by some to find a connection between this and the implications of inherited guilt on a generation of German youth again dabbling with amoral technologies were never convincing, Ziet just an hour and a quarter of electronica to be enjoyed or endured.  There were critics who found both but, as even the unconvinced seemed willing often to concede, in the milieu of the sometimes willfully obscure electronica of the era, the Tangerine Dream crew were fine exponents.

Lindsay Lohan story (2 September 2022) in the on-line edition of Die Zeit (The Time) a national weekly newspaper published in Hamburg, Germany.  A broadsheet (literally and editorially), it's a liberal publication and was first published in 1946, one of the earliest of the new newspapers which emerged in the immediate post-war years while Germany was still under allied occupation.  Hamburg was in the British Zone of Occupation until 1949 when it was merged with the US & French zones to constitute the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG, the old West Germany) which lasted until the 1990 unification with the German Democratic Republic (GDR, the old East Germany). 

Mercenary & Condottiere

Mercenary (pronounced mur-suh-ner-ee)

(1) Working or acting merely for money or other reward; venal; influenced by greed or desire for gain (now less common except in fields like professional politics or corporate structures).

(2) Hired to serve in a foreign army, guerrilla organization etc; a professional soldier hired to serve in a foreign army.

(3) Any hireling (now rare).

(4) In figurative use, one paid to use skills in an ideological, political or commercial conflict in which they have otherwise no interest (often applied in a derogatory sense).

1350–1400: From the Middle English mercenarie (one who works only for hire, one who has no higher motive to work than love of gain), from the thirteenth century Old French mercenaire (mercenary, hireling) from the Latin mercēnnārius (working for pay, hired worker, mercenary, thought perhaps related to the earlier mercēnārius, the construct being mercēdin- (stem of mercēdō, a by-form of mercēs (wages), from mercēd- (payment, wage (akin to merx (goods) and source of the modern merchant)) + -ārius- (ary) (feminine -āria, neuter -ārium), the Latin first/second-declension suffix used to form adjectives from nouns or numerals. 

The original meaning was "working or acting for reward, serving only for gain", hence the association with "sordid motives; ready to accept dishonorable gain", a sense noted from the 1530s.  The most familiar use in modern English, describing the age-old profession, that of "a professional soldier available for hire by any (often foreign) service able to pay" is from the mid-seventeenth century.  Though once use as a neutral descriptor the connotations, of civilians and the military, now almost always tend to the negative.  Mercenary is a noun and adjective, mercenarily is an adverb and mercenariness is a noun.  While not always exactly synonymous, related words include acquisitive, selfish, unscrupulous, warrior, grasping, hireling, legionnaire, slave, avaricious, bribable, corrupt, covetous, grabby, miserly, money-grubbing, sordid, stingy, unethical, unprincipled & venal; those in the opposite sense being altruistic, idealistic & unselfish.  The noun plural is mercenaries.

Condottiere: (pronounced kawn-duh-tyair-ey, kawn-duh--tyair-ee (Italian: kawn-dawt-tye-re))

(1) A leader of a private band of mercenary soldiers in Italy, especially between the thirteenth & sixteenth centuries.

(2) Often (though technically imprecise) used to describe any mercenary; soldier of fortune.

1794: From the Italian condotto (leadership), from condurre (to lead), the construct being condott(o) (from the Latin conductus (hired man, past participle of condūcere (to conduce (source of the modern conduct)) + -iere (from the Latin suffix –ārius (-ary).  The noun plural is condottieri or the anglicized condottieres.  The verb conduce dates from circa 1400 although the original sense "to lead, to conduct" is now obsolete.  It was from the Latin condūcere (to lead or bring together, contribute, serve), from an assimilated form of com (with, together) + ducere (to lead (from the primitive Indo-European root deuk- (to lead).  The intransitive sense of "aid in or contribute toward a result" is from the 1580s.

Statute of Garibaldi (1895) by Ettore Ximenes (1855–1926) & Augusto Guidini (1853-1928) in Largo Cairoli, Milan.

Giuseppe Garibaldi (1807-1882) was an Italian nationalist general and politician.  As a condottiere, Garibaldi has been called the "hero of the two worlds" because of his military enterprises in Brazil, Uruguay and Europe and is best remembered for his personal command of many of the military campaigns which led eventually to Italian unification in 1871.  His reputation as a romantic revolutionary has flourished because historians have seemed always anxious to present his military adventures as noble causes rather than apply the standards imposed on others, certainly since the Nuremberg trial (1945-1946) codified matters such as “planning aggressive wars” and “waging aggressive wars”.  Clearly, when deciding where things lie on the shifting spectrum of international morality, context matters.

Garibaldi and the Garibaldians (1907) by Plinio Nomellini (1866–1943).

Garibaldi was certainly an appealing actor in a drama-filled century of European history.  Even had he felt the political unification of the peninsular was either desirable or inevitable, Count Cavour (1810–1861), prime ,inister of Piedmont–Sardinia, showed no interest in pursuing the matter because, as an astute politician of what would come to be known as the power-realist school, knew the difficulties were insurmountable and the implications of any attempt to achieve the goal were likely dark.  Garibaldi was interested in a united Italy, believed in miracles and knew they could make real the the impossible.  The unusual combination of circumstances at home and abroad which existed in the aftermath of all that had happened between the Congress of Vienna (1814-1815) and the revolutions of 1848 were made Garibaldi’s project actually possible but it was the natural genius he possessed as a condottiere which assured success.  Notably, Cavour, sniffing the political winds stirred when suddenly Garibaldi was by revolutionary means unifying Italy from the south in a way Cavour knew couldn’t be achieved by diplomatic means from the north, staged what would now be called a political flip-flop, ceasing trying to thwart Garibaldi and instead claimed the whole campaign was his policy.

Lindsay Lohan in garibaldino shirt.

Garibaldi’s part in the movement for Italian unification (known as il Risorgimento (Rising Again)) also produced a footnote in para-military fashion.  His followers were known as the Garibaldini and in lieu of a uniform, they wore the red shirts he favored, the popular legend being it was to ensure they weren’t distracted from fighting were their blood to be spilled.  It was also an indication the campaign was a popular insurrection, not one fought by conventional military maneuvers or with traditional formations because, as the red-coated British soldiers had discovered, red wasn’t a good color to wear on a battlefield.  The word Garibaldino (plural Garibaldini) is used to refer to any volunteer soldier who served in the cause and the red shirts (which were never standardized in shade, style or cut) are often called garibaldino shirts or just garibaldinos.

The Swiss Guard

One of the oldest military formations in continuous active service, The Pontificia Cohors (Pontifical Swiss Guard; also often referred to as Papal Guard or, most commonly, Swiss Guard) is the ceremonial and armed force of the Holy See.  Based in the Vatican, it provides security for the Pope and Apostolic Palace.  The tradition of The Swiss Guard can be traced back to the pontificate of Sixtus IV (1414-1484; pope 1471-1484) when an alliance was formed with the Swiss Confederacy, barracks built in the Papal States should the need arise to hire Swiss mercenaries.  The treaty was renewed under subsequent popes and the guard did see active service at times when the pope was in alliance with France but it was under the Borgia popes of the late fifteenth century it was reorganized as a conventional military formation, fielded not only by the Holy See but used also to augment the armies of France and the Holy Roman Empire.  Their performance in battle during the war between France and Naples was noted by Cardinal Giuliano della Rovere (1443-1513; pope 1503-1513), a military-minded priest later nicknamed the warrior pope, his name chosen to render honor unto Julius Caesar.  Upon assuming the papacy as Julius II, he requested the Swiss Diet (parliament) furnish a battalion (about two-hundred soldiers) of mercenaries for his protection.  They entered barracks in 1506 and this is regarded as the formation of the Papal Swiss Guard.

Although from time-to-time the guard has been disbanded, once, after heavy battlefield losses even replaced for a while by German mercenaries, they’ve been an almost constant presence in the Holy See ever since.  Having long ceased to be a military unit, their increasingly ceremonial role was reassessed in the late twentieth century as the threat profile evolved.  The guard is now a professional security and personal protection operation, all members having undergone firearms and related training in the Swiss army.

Pope Francis (b 1936; pope since 2013) inspects the Swiss Guard.

The colors blue and yellow have been used since the sixteenth century and are believed to represent the Della Rovere coat of arms of Pope Julius II (1443–1513; pope 1503-1513); the red added to represent the Medici coat of arms of Pope Leo X (1475–1521; pope 1513-1521).

Drone

Drone (pronounced drohn)

(1) A male bee in a colony of social bees, stingless and making no honey whose sole function is to mate with the queen

(2) An unmanned aircraft or ship that can navigate autonomously, without manned control or beyond line of sight.

(3) In casual use, any unmanned aircraft or ship that is guided remotely.

(4) A person who lives on the labor of others; a parasitic loafer.

(5) A drudge.

(6) To make a dull, continued, low, monotonous sound; a hum or buzz.

(7) To speak in a monotonous tone.

(8) To proceed in a dull, monotonous manner.

(9) In music, originally, a continuous low tone produced by the bass pipes or bass strings of musical instruments (later extended to the notion of "drone music", a "clearing house" term for a range of sub-genres and elements).

(10) The pipes (especially of the bagpipe) or strings producing this tone or the bagpipe equipped with such pipes.

Pre 1000: From the Middle English drane & drone (male honeybee), from the Old English drān & drǣn (male bee, drone), from the Proto-Germanic drēniz, drēnuz & drenô (an insect, drone), from the primitive Indo-European dhrēn- (bee, drone, hornet); the Proto-Germanic was the source also of Middle Dutch drane, the Old High German treno (the German Drohne, is from Middle Low German drone), the origin of which may have been imitative (there was the Lithuanian tranni and the Greek thronax (a drone)).  It was cognate with the Dutch drone & Middle Dutch drōnen (male bee or wasp), the Low German drone & German drohne (drone), the dialectal German dräne, trehne & trene (drone), the Danish drone (drone) and the Swedish drönje & drönare (drone).  An earlier variation was the Old English drān, related to the Old High German treno (drone), the Gothic drunjus (noise) and the Greek tenthrēnē (asp) which was the source of the sense of a sound, the meaning emerging 1490–1500, related also to the Middle English droun (to roar), the Icelandic drynja (to bellow) and the Gothic drunjus (noise).

The meaning referring to pilotless airframes appears first to have been used by the military in 1945-1946, initially in the sense of towed target drones, the "pilotless aircraft directed by remote control".  Even in 1946, military theorists were speculating about the potential use of "drones" although much of what was then described was closer to the modern smart bombs or guided missiles.  The meaning "a deep, continuous humming sound" emerged circa 1500, apparently an independent imitative formation in the sense of the 1630s noun threnody (song of lament), from the Greek thrēnōdia (lamentation), the construct being thrēnos (dirge, lament) + ōidē (ode).  The Ancient Greek thrēnos was probably from the primitive Indo-European imitative root dher- (to drone, murmur, hum), source also of the Old English dran (drone), the Gothic drunjus (sound) and the Greek tenthrene (a species of wasp).  The specific technical use "bass pipe of a bagpipe" was first adopted in the  1590s.   The figurative sense of "an idler, a shiftless, lazy worker" (based on the idea of the male bees which make no honey), dates from the 1520s.  Drone quickly became a popular way to describe a mono-tonal, boring speech delivery.

Drones and UAVs

The modern military term for what most people casually call a drone is unmanned aerial vehicle (UAV) a more accurate descriptor given the original target drones were either objects towed by “target tugs” or radio controlled aircraft dumbly flying on pre-set paths.  Research on the concept of unmanned flying devices for reconnaissance target practice or even ordnance delivery had begun even before the military had adopted combat aircraft and by the mid-1930s, the Royal Air Force (RAF) in the UK had hundreds of radio controlled biplanes but the word drone appears to have been adopted only in 1945-1946 to describe the objects towed behind piloted aircraft.  Used to provide a moving target for either air-to-air or surface-to-air target practice, the target tugs towing the drone tended to be painted in lurid color schemes to differentiate tug from target although tugs still suffered hits from "friendly fire".  Over time, slang developing as it does, the terms “target drone” and “drone” came often to refer not just to the towed target-object but also the “target tug”, the aircraft towing the target, less a leakage from military use than just a misunderstanding that caught on.  Now, most UAVs sold to hobbyists or for commercial use are marketed as drones.

Paint scheme for target tug towing drone used for surface-to-air target practice on de Havilland Mosquito TT (target tug) Mark 35, No 3 CAACU (Civilian Anti-Aircraft Co-operation Unit), Exeter, UK, 1963.

The use as a target tug (TT) was the last operational role for the Mosquito, one of the more remarkable aircraft of World War Two.  Developed as a private venture by de Havilland, it was greeted by the by the Air Ministry with not their usual mere indifference but outright hostility to the very concept of a light, unarmed bomber made from plywood which relied for protection on speed rather than firepower.  The company however persisted and the Mosquito, which first flew in 1940, became one of the outstanding and most versatile combat aircraft of the war deployed as a fighter, fighter-bomber, night-fighter and bomber in roles as diverse as photo-reconnaissance, maritime strike, long-range surveillance, ground-attack and pathfinder missions guiding heavy bombers.  There was even a naval version for carrier operations, operated by the Fleet Air Arm.

The post-war career too was notable.  Equipped with the latest radar, the Mosquito was retained as a front-line, all-weather fighter until 1951-1952 when night-fighter versions of the Gloster Meteor and de Havilland Vampire entered service.  The last of the 7771 Mosquitos produced did not leave the production line until 1950, the long Indian summer necessitated by the UK’s technology deficit and although few probably thing of the Mosquito as a Cold War fighter but that was its unexpected penultimatum.  The less celebrated but valuable swansong came as a target tug, painted in vivid colors to decrease the danger from “friendly fire” and these platforms remained in operational service until finally retired in 1963, some of the decommissioned aircraft subsequently used by film studios for wartime features.  In addition to the RAF’s Mark 35s, a number of Mark 16 bombers were converted to TT Mark 39s, operated also by the Royal Navy and two ex-RAF Mark 6 (fighter-bombers) were in 1953-1954 converted to the TT Mark 6 standard for the Belgian Air Force which used them as target tugs at the Sylt firing ranges.  For an airframe which the authorities were at the time inclined to reject, the Mosquito enjoyed a remarkable operational life of over two decades; the Treasury got their money's worth.

The Germans, the Russians and Drone Music

Although musicologists categorize “drone music” as a sub-genre in the minimalist tradition, when produced thus it’s really an application of a element of sound which has been a component of many pieces nobody would describe as even vague drone-like.  Ethno-musicologists also object to the usually Eurocentric treatment of the topic, pointing out that musical traditions from Morocco to Mongolia contain much that can only be called a drone and along with a rhythmic beat, the two are probably the basis of most of the early music created by humans.  As a modern form however, to be thought of as “drone music”, compositions tend to be long and characterized by slight or sudden, jarring harmonic shifts.  The form obviously pre-dates means of electronics production but the availability in the twentieth century essentially allowed the genre to be created and it was figures such as Karlheinz Stockhausen (1928–2007) and Pierre Schaeffer (1910–1995) who created the works which first came to public attention.  The critical response varied, those attracted to the avant-garde anxious not to seem reactionary while others would probably have agreed with comrade Stalin (1878-1953; Soviet leader 1924-1953) who condemned as “formalists” those artists who pursued novelties and technical challenges just to impress their peers and a small elite cohort.  The public reaction to the form in its early years seems mostly to have varied between scepticism and the dismissal of the very idea such sounds could be called “music”.  Still, it endured and although never more than a niche as a stand-alone product, continues to underpin many popular forms, notably those listened to in clubs or at festivals by those under the influence of some substance and as the artists well know, there is a relationship between the drone and the chemicals.

By the time the German experimentalists Tangerine Dream released Zeit (Largo in four movements, 1972), it’s possible all that could be done in droning had been done and it can be argued everything since has been a variation but that hasn’t stopped the explorations, the Europeans especially entranced although it was the film-makers who found snatches of drone so useful in creating dramatic effects.  Curiously, there are those who have argued the credit (or the blame, depending on one’s view) for the emergence of drone music belongs to Richard Wagner (1813–1883), on the basis that by the end of his career, tonality had constantly shifting key centres, modulated so often there was little but ambiguity about what the final notes should be.

That’s fine but, so the argument goes, if there are more and more shifting key centres, there comes a point at which there’s no longer a centre of pitch, thus Arnold Schoenberg (1874–1951) twelve-tone system in which instead of a composition being based on major or minor scales and chords, a tone row was created, the twelve appearing in a specific order (thus the nickname “tone row”).  Musically (and politically, according to some), the idea of a tone row is methodically to avoid a preference for one note over another; all are equal.  Unlike tonal music in which pull active tones “pull” to resolve to resting tones, what came to be called “atonal music” came about because so far had Wagner pushed the boundaries that tonality could do nothing but disintegrate.  For the avant-garde, this created a gap in the market for “critic-ready compositions” because just as a visual form like cubism deconstructed the “bits” of the image and let them be seem in isolation as part of a whole, music could be rediced to a collection of drones and these could be performed singularly, in parallel or as a lineal set.  “By Schoenberg, out or Wagner” is an intriguing explanation for the origin of drone music and not all will agree.