Ratio

Ratio (pronounced rey-shoh (U) or rey-shee-oh (non-U))

(1) The relation between two similar magnitudes with respect to the number of times the first contains the second.

(2) The proportional relation; rate.

(3) In finance, the relative value of gold and silver in a bimetallic currency system.

(4) In mathematics, a quotient of two numbers or quantities.

(5) In western legal systems, the slang for ratio decidendi, the substantive part(s) of the judgment.

(6) In the metrics of the internet, the number of comments to a post or other expression on social media relative to the number of likes (a high ratio assumed to suggests disagreement with the contents of the original post).

1630–1640: From the Latin ratiō (a doublet of ration and reason) (a reckoning, account, numbering, derivation, calculation) from the base of rērī (to judge, think).  The original meaning in English, dating from the 1630s (reason, rationale, calculation, reckoning, numbering, calculation, judgment) mirrored the Latin practice while the mathematical sense "relationship between two numbers" is attested from the 1650s.  The use in theological texts in the sense of "reason, rationale" was a tribute to the original meaning in Latin (a reckoning, account, numbering, derivation, calculation), hence also the idea of "a business affair; course, conduct, procedure".  From this also emerged (in a transferred sense and applying to mental action), the meaning "reason, reasoning, judgment, understanding, that faculty of the mind which forms the basis of computation and calculation" (the ultimate origin of this being rat-, the past-participle stem of reri (to reckon, calculate (and also "to think, judge, believe), from the primitive Indo-European root re- (to think, reason, count).  The Latin ratio often was used to represent or translate the Greek logos (computation, account, esteem, reason) in works of philosophy, though the range of senses in the two do not wholly overlap because ratio lacks the essential "speech, word, statement" meaning which exists in the logos.  The familiar modern meaning "corresponding relationship between things not precisely measurable" had become common by the early nineteenth century.

Ratio Decidendi and Obiter Dictum

The ratio decidendi is a phrase in legal Latin meaning "reason (or rationale) for the decision” and the professional oral & verbal shorthand is ratio.  It’s the ratio decidendi which justifies the judgment and expresses the legal principle(s) which determine the outcome.  The ratio decidendi either creates or is consistent with legal precedent and in the common law’s hierarchical system, lower courts are required to follow precedents established by higher courts.

Obiter dictum the complimentary legal Latin phrase meaning "by the way" and the legal slag is variously dicta or (more commonly) obiter.  The obiter is the collective term for other substantive material in the judgment but not part of the reasoning for the decision, the remarks or observations made by a judge that do not form a necessary part of the decision.  There exists an informal test called the Wambaugh Inversion to determine whether a judicial statement is ratio or obiter.  This involves asking whether the decision would have been different, had the statement been omitted.  If so, the statement is crucial and is ratio; if not, it is obiter.  The rarely used plural for ratio is rationes decidendi whereas, because of the rules of Latin, obiter is used almost always in the plural as obiter dicta.  The difference between the ratio and the dicta is a most useful distinction but would be more helpful if judges could be prevailed upon to make if clear which is which; even bullet-point summaries would be handy.  One suspects many judges think themselves fine stylists of the language, a view not always shared by their captive audience.

B2BR: The bitemporal to bizygomatic ratio

Lindsay Lohan's bitemporal to bizygomatic ratio (B2BR), calculated by pinkmirror.com.  Her admirable B2BR ratio of 1.07 contributed to her overall beauty score of 8.5 (out of 10), putting her in the "beautiful" category.  The above image is rendered in the 1:2 aspect ratio of the DL envelope, favored by architects because the result is thought pleasing to the eye.  

Architects and engineers use all sorts of ratios in their calculations, some to improve aesthetic appeal and some to optimize specific strength.  In internal combustion engines, ratios are commonly used (compression ratio, connecting rod-to-stroke ratio et al) and in building design, the "DL envelope ratio" (1:2) references the standard DL envelope (110 x 220 mm; 4⅓ x 8⅔") which, when applied in architecture, is considered to produce a shape pleasing to the eye, apparently because it closely corresponds with the natural field of human vision.  In the beauty business there are also ratios, used predictably to compartmentalize various aspects of women's appearance so their degree of attractiveness can be reduced to a number.  The site pinkmirror.com helpfully provides an interactive analysis page, one component of which is the bitemporal to bizygomatic ratio (B2BR), a measure used in facial anthropometry (the study of facial measurements and proportions) and cosmetic and restorative surgery.  The B2BR compares the distance between the two temporal bones (bitemporal distance) with the distance between the two zygomatic bones (bizygomatic distance) in the face.  Notionally, the B2BR is set at 1:1 (a baseline for calculation purposes rather than an ideal) and if bitemporal distance is greater than that of the bizygomatic, the ratio will be greater than 1, indicating a relatively narrow midface whereas if the bizygomatic distance is greater, the ratio will be less than 1, indicating a relatively wide midface.  In medicine the B2BR is used as an indicative diagnostic tool which can be helpful in assessing certain genetic conditions that affect facial structure and in cosmetic & restorative surgery its used as one of the measures of facial proportions when planning treatments.  Some advanced systems in cosmetic facial surgery no use CAD (computer assisted design) software and 3D printing (essentially "prototyping" the "new" face) and the B2BR is one of the critical metrics used in both.

Rational

Rational (pronounced rash-nl (U) or rash-uh-nl (non-U))

(1) Agreeable to reason; reasonable; sensible.

(2) Having or exercising reason, sound judgment, or good sense.

(3) Of a person or their personal characteristics, being in or characterized by full possession of one's reason; sane; lucid; healthy or balanced intellectually; exhibiting reasonableness.

(4) Endowed with the faculty of reason; capable of reasoning.

(5) Of or relating to, or constituting reasoning powers.

(6) Proceeding or derived from reason or based on reasoning.

(7) Logically sound; not self-contradictory or otherwise absurd

(8) In mathematics, capable of being expressed exactly by a ratio of two integers or (of a function) capable of being expressed exactly by a ratio of two polynomials.

(9) In chemistry, expressing the type, structure, relations, and reactions of a compound; graphic; said of formulae.

(10) In physics, expressing a physical object.

(11) In the philosophy of science, based on scientific knowledge or theory rather than practical observation.

(12) The breastplate worn by Israelite high priests (historic references only).

1350-1400: From the Old French rationel & rational, from the Middle English racional, from the Late Latin ratiōnālis (of or belonging to reason, rational, reasonable; having a ratio), the construct being ratiōn (stem of ratiō (reason; calculation)) + -ālis.  The –alis suffix was from the primitive Indo-European -li-, which later dissimilated into an early version of –āris and there may be some relationship with hel- (to grow); -ālis (neuter -āle) was the third-declension two-termination suffix and was suffixed to (1) nouns or numerals creating adjectives of relationship and (2) adjectives creating adjectives with an intensified meaning.  The suffix -ālis was added (usually, but not exclusively) to a noun or numeral to form an adjective of relationship to that noun. When suffixed to an existing adjective, the effect was to intensify the adjectival meaning, and often to narrow the semantic field.  If the root word ends in -l or -lis, -āris is generally used instead although because of parallel or subsequent evolutions, both have sometimes been applied (eg līneālis & līneāris).  The use to describe the breastplate worn by Israelite high priests was from the Old French rational, from the Medieval Latin ratiōnāle (a pontifical stole, a pallium, an ornament worn over the chasuble), neuter of the Latin rationalis (rational).  The spelling rationall is obsolete.  Rational is a noun & adjective, rationalizing is a noun & verb, rationalize & rationalized are verbs, rationalism , rationalness & rationalizer are nouns and rationally is an adverb; the noun plural is rationals.  The rarely used adjective hyperrational means literally “extremely rational” and can be used positively or neutrally but it’s applied also negatively, usually as a critique of “economic rationality”.

Rational & irrational numbers illustrated by Math Monks.

In something of a departure from the usual practice in English, “antirational”, “nonrational” & “irrational” (there are hyphenated forms of both) are not necessarily synonymous.  Antirational describes something or someone who is or acts in a way contrary to the rational while arational (often in the form arationality) is a technical term used in philosophy in the sense of “not within the domain of what can be understood or analyzed by reason; not rational, outside the competence of the rules of reason” an applied to matters of faith (religious & secular).  Nonrational (used usually in the hyphenated form) is literally simply the antonym of rational (in most senses) but now appears most often in the language of economics where it’s used of decisions made by actors (individual, collective & corporate) which are contrary to economic self-interest.  Irrational can be used as another antonym but it’s also a “loaded” adjective which carries an association with madness (now called mental illness) while in mathematics (especially the mysterious world of number theory) it’s the specific antonym of the “ration number” and means a “real number unable to be written as the ratio of two integers”, a concept dating from the 1560s.

The adjective rational emerged in the mid-1400s and was was a variant of the late fourteenth century racional (“pertaining to or springing from reason” and of persons “endowed with reason; having the power of reasoning”, from the Old French racionel and directly from the Latin rationalis (of or belonging to reason, reasonable) from ratio (genitive rationis) (reckoning, calculation, reason).  By the 1560s it was picked up in mathematics to mean “expressible in finite terms” before becoming more precisely defined.  The meaning “conformable to the precepts of practical reason” dates from the 1630s.  The adverb rationally was from the same source as ratio and ration; the sense in rational is aligned with that in the related noun reason which got deformed in French.  The noun rationality by the 1620s was used in the sense of “quality of having reason” and by mid-century that had extended to “fact of being agreeable to reason”, from the French rationalité and directly from the Late Latin rationalitas (reasonableness, rationality (the source also for the Spanish racionalidad and the Italian razionalita), from the Latin rationalis (of or belonging to reason, reasonable).  As late as the early fifteenth century racionabilite (the faculty of reason) was in Middle English, from the Latin rationabilitas.

Rational AG's iCombi Pro range: Gas or Electric.

By the 1820s, the noun rationalization was in use in the sense of “a rendering rational, act of subjection to rational tests or principles”, the specific modern sense in psychology in reference to subconscious (to justify behavior to make it seem rational or socially acceptable) adopted by the profession early in the twentieth century.  The verb rationalize (explain in a rational way, make conformable to reason) dates from the mid eighteenth century although the sense familiar in psychology (to give an explanation that conceals true motives) came into use only in the 1920s on the notion of “cause to appear reasonable or socially acceptable” although decades earlier it had been used with the intransitive sense of “think for oneself, employ one's reason as the supreme test”.  The use in psychology endured but “rationalize” also came into use in applied economics with the meaning “to reorganize an industry or other commercial concern to eliminate wasteful processes”.  That seems to have come from US use although the first recorded entry was the Oxford English Dictionary’s (OED) supplementary edition in 1927.  In this context, it became a “vogue word” of the inter-war years of both sides of the Atlantic although it fell from favour after 1945 as the vogue shifted to “integrate”, “tailor”, “streamline” and that favourite of 1970s management consultants: the “agonizing reappraisal”.  However, in the 1980s & 1990s, “rationalize” gained a new popularity in economics and (especially) the boom industry of financial journalism, presumably because the “economic rationalists” coalesced during the Reagan-Thatcher era as the dominant faction in political economy.

Many have their own favourite aspect of Sigmund Freud’s (1856-1939) theories but one concept which infuses mush of his work is the tussle in the human psyche between the rational and irrational.  Freud’s structural model consisted of the three major components: id, ego & superego, the elements interacting and conflicting to shape behavior and personality.  The id was the primitive & instinctual part containing sexual and aggressive drives; operating on the pleasure principle, it seeks seeking immediate gratification and pleasure.  Present even before birth, it’s the source of our most basic desires and in its purest processes is wholly irrational, focused on wants and not the consequences of actions.

Concept of the id, ego & superego by the Psych-Mental Health Hub.

The rational was introduced by the ego, something which developed from the id and was the rational, decision-making part of the mind which balanced the demands of the id and the constraints of reality.  As Freud noted, implicit in this interaction was that the ego repressed the id which obviously was desirable because that’s what enables a civilized society to function but the price to be paid was what he called “surplus repression”.  That was a central idea in Freud's later psychoanalytic theory, exploring the consequences of the repression of innate, instinctual drives beyond that which was necessary for the functioning of society and the individual: the rational took its pound of flesh.  Discussed in Civilization and its Discontents (1930), “primary repression” was essential to allow the individual to adapt to societal norms and function in a civilized society while “surplus repression” was the operation of these forces beyond what is required for that adaptation.  Freud identified this as a source of psychological distress and neurosis.

Lindsay Lohan’s early century lifestyle made her a popular choice as a case-study for students in Psychology 101 classes studying the interaction of the rational and irrational process in the mind.  Most undergraduates probably enjoyed writing these essays more than had they been asked to analyse Richard Nixon (1913-1994; US president 1969-1974), America’s other great exemplar of the struggle.

It was the ego which mediated between the id, the superego, and the external world, making possible realistic and socially acceptable decisions, essentially by making individuals consider the consequences of their actions.  The superego developed last and built a construct of the morality, ethical standards & values internalized from parents, the education system, society and cultural norms; operating on the “morality principle”, the superego one of the “nurture” parts of the “nature vs nurture” equation which would for decades be such an important part of research in psychology.

Coefficient

Coefficient (pronounced koh-uh-fish-uhnt)

(1) In mathematics, a number or quantity in an equation placed usually before and multiplying another number or quantity; a constant by which an algebraic term is multiplied; a number, value or item that serves as a measure of some property or characteristic.

(2) In physics, a number that is constant for a given substance, body, or process under certain specified conditions, serving as a measure of one of its properties; a number, value or item that serves as a measure of some property or characteristic.

(3) Acting together (rare except in historic references).

1580s: From the Middle English coefficient (that which unites in action with something else to produce a given effect), from the French coefficient, coined by French mathematician François Viète (1540-1603), from the Late Latin coefficient, stem of coefficiēns, which is a nominalisation of the present active participle of coefficere, the construct being co- (together) + efficere (to effect) from efficio.  The alternative spelling is co-efficient and the adjectival sense “acting in union to the same end” was first used in the 1660s.  Coefficient is a noun & adjective, coefficiency is a noun and coefficiently an adverb; the noun plural is coefficients.

In science and engineering, the word is applied for a variety of technical purposes, including:

(1) In physics, as coefficient of friction, the ratio between (1) the magnitude of the force of friction which a surface produces on an object (moving along the surface or being pressed statically against it) & (2) the magnitude of the normal force which is produced by the surface on the object and which is perpendicular to that surface.

(2) In physics, as drag coefficient, a dimensionless quantity quantifying the amount of hydrodynamic drag force experienced by an object with a given area immersed in a fluid of a given density flowing at a given speed.

(3) In statistical analysis, a coefficient of alienation (or coefficient of non-determination), a numerical measure of the lack of relationship between variables.

(4) In physics, as ballistic coefficient, the ratio of the mass of an object to the product of its maximum cross-sectional area and its drag coefficient, used to measure the object's resistance to deceleration by hydrodynamic drag.

(5) In chemistry, as Bunsen coefficient, the number of millilitres of gas dissolved in a millilitre of liquid at atmospheric pressure and a specified temperature.

(6) In statistics, as Dice coefficient, a statistic used to gauge the similarity of two samples.  It is equal to twice the number of elements common to both sets, divided by the sum of the number of elements in each set.

(7) In naval architecture, as prismatic coefficient, the ratio between the total submerged volume of a vessel's hull, on the one hand, and the product of the length of the submerged portion of the hull with the area of the largest cross-sectional slice of the submerged portion of the hull, on the other.

(8) In naval architecture, as block coefficient, the proportion occupied, by the submerged portion of a vessel's hull, of a rectangular prism with dimensions equal to the maximum beam of the submerged portion of the hull, the length of the submerged portion of the hull, and the draft of the vessel.

(9) In measurement, as temperature coefficient, a number which relates the change of the magnitude of a physical property to a unit change in temperature.

(10) In nuclear engineering, as void coefficient, a number quantifying how the reactivity of a nuclear reactor changes due to the formation of bubbles in the reactor's coolant.

Drag coefficient (CD)

Except in a vacuum, objects in motion are subject to drag, the friction created by air or water interacting with the object’s surface.  This friction absorbs energy the object could otherwise use to maintain or increase speed so, except where drag is required (such as the need for a certain amount of down-force), designers of objects which move, shape them to minimise drag. Historically, the drag coefficient was notated as c_d but it’s also written as c_x & c_w (cd or CD a common form in non-specialist literature).  The CD number is calculated according to a equation, the construct of which varies according to the object to be assessed.  For a car, the equation is:

F = 1/2 * rho * S * Cx * v²

F is the dragging force, in expressed in Newtons (N)

S is the frontal surface of the object in square metres (m²)

Cx is the aerodynamic finesse, which varies depending on the shape of the object

v is the relative speed of the object (the car) compared to the fluid (the air), in meters per second (m/s), separated into vc (object speed) and va (air speed) and written (vc - va)

rho is the density of the fluid, the air, in kilograms per cubic meters (kg/ m³) (approximately to 1.55 kg/m³)

The drag coefficient (CD) is a measure of aerodynamic efficiency, expressed as a number and, as a general principle, the lower the number, the more efficient the shape but the CD is often misunderstood.  It’s not an absolute value which can be used to compare relative efficiency of objects of radically different shapes.  A CD for an aircraft needs to be compared with that of other airframes, not those of a train or truck, the CD calculated by an equation using a variable (the reference area) relevant to the function of the object.  For aircraft, the variable is the wing area because it’s relevant for an object moving in three dimensions whereas for road vehicles, it’s the frontal area, cars and trucks almost always moving forward.  That’s why noting a Boeing 747 has a CD of .031 while a Porsche 911 might return .34 is a meaningless comparison.

1963 Jaguar E-Type S1 (XK-E) FHC (fixed head coupé) (left) and 1962 Volkswagen Type 2 (23 Window Samba).

Even among road transport vehicles, the variability in the equations needs to be understood.  Just because a Volkswagen Type 2 returns a CD of .42 doesn’t mean it’s a more aerodynamic shape than a Jaguar E-Type (XK-E) which produces a notionally worse .44 CD.  The numbers are a product partly of the variable, the frontal area, so the efficiency of the Volkswagen can be assessed only if compared to other, similarly sized vans.

Macro

Macro (pronounced mak-roh)

(1) Anything large in scale, scope, or capability.

(2) In the colloquial language of economics, of or relating to macroeconomics.

(3) In computing, an instruction that represents a sequence of instructions in abbreviated form (also rarely called macroinstruction) or a statement, typically for an assembler, that invokes a macro definition to generate a sequence of instructions or other outputs.

(4) In photography, producing larger than life images, often a type of close-up photography or as image macro, a picture with text superimposed.

(5) As the acronym MACRO, the Museum of Contemporary Art of Rome (Museo d'Arte Contemporanea di Roma).

1933: A word-forming element from the Ancient Greek μακρός (macros), a combining form of makrós (long), cognate with the Latin macer (lean; meagre) and from the primitive Indo-European root mak (long, thin); now a general purpose prefix meaning large.  The English borrowing from French appears to date from 1933 with the upsurge in writings on economics during the great depression.  It subsequently became a combining form meaning large, long, great, excessive et al, used in the formation of compound words, contrasting with those prefixed with micro-.  In computing, it covers a wide vista but describes mostly relatively short sets of instructions used within programs, often as a time-saving device for the handling of repetitive tasks, one of the few senses in which macro (although originally a clipping in 1959  of macroinstruction) has become a stand-alone word rather than a contraction.  Other examples of use vis-a-vis include macrophotography (photography of objects at or larger than actual size without the use of a magnifying lens (1863)), macrospore (in botany, "a spore of large size compared with others (1859)), macroeconomics (pertaining to the economy as a whole (1938), macrobiotic (a type of diet (1961)), macroscopic (visible to the naked eye (1841)), macropaedia (the part of an encyclopaedia Britannica where entries appear as full essays (1974)), macrophage (in pathology "type of large white blood cell with the power to devour foreign debris in the body or other cells or organisms" (1890)).

Dieting and the macro fad

In the faddish world of dieting, the macrobiotic (macro- +‎ -biotic (from the Ancient Greek βιωτικός (biōtikós) (of life), from βίος (bios) (life)) diet is based on the precepts of Zen Buddhism.  It’s said to seek to balance what are described as the yin & yang elements of food and even the cookware used in its preparation.  The regime, first popularised by George Ohsawa san (1893-1966) in the 1930s, suggests ten food plans which, if followed, will achieve what is said to be the ideal yin:yang ratio of 5:1.  Controversial, there’s no acceptance the diet has any of the anti-cancer properties its proponents often claim beyond that expected if one follows the generally recommended balanced diets which differ little from the macrobiotic.  It was Ohsawa san's 1961 book Zen Macrobiotic which introduced the word to a wider audience although he acknowledged the system had been practiced in Germany in the late eighteenth century.

A later fad, macronutrients, is distinct from macrobiotics and describes another form of a balanced diet, the three classes of macronutrients being the familiar proteins, fats, and carbohydrates.  The macro diet puts a premium on whole rather than processed foods and requires calorie counting because of the need to track intake and maintain the metrics within a certain range.  Where the macro diet differs is that the metrics vary between individuals rather than requiring conformity to the unchanging yin:yang ratio .  Depending on factors such as body type, life-style, age and health, a nutritionist will construct a target macro ratio (eg 40% carbohydrates, 40% protein and 20% fat) although that may change depending upon outcomes achieved.

The pro ana community seems to view the macrobiotic diet with uninterest rather than scepticism, noting it’s optimised around a concept of balance rather than weight-loss and, while perhaps useful in some aspects, is just another fad diet and that’s fine because, if followed, all diets probably work but for pro ana purposes there are better, faster, more extreme ways.

Macrophotography (also known as photomacrography, macrography or macro-photography) is a specialised niche in imagery, usually in the form of close-up photographs of small subjects, typically living organisms like insects, the object being to create an image greater than life size.  The word is used also by processing technicians to refer to the creation of physically large photographs regardless of the size of the subject or the relation between subject size and finished photograph.

When macro photography depended on a camera with a macro lens committing images to film stock, it was a genuinely specialised skill.  Now, advances in the sensor technology used in small, general purpose digital cameras mean anyone can produce raw images very close to those attainable using a DSLR (digital single-lens reflex) or SLR (single-lens reflex) with a true macro lens and editing software exists to enhance the images.  The emergence of very high definition (8K+) OLED (organic light-emitting diode) televisions in sizes larger than human beings has introduced a new subset to macrophotography for home use.  The 8K devices are currently available in sizes up to 150" (3.8m) and the technology exists to join together edgeless screens to create one vast panel, the size limited only by the software support.

Macrophotography of Lindsay Lohan's eyes, Venice Film Festival, 2006.

Logo

Logo (pronounced loh-goh)

(1) A graphic representation (a visual symbol) of a institutional name or trademark (occasionally called a logotype).

(2) In computing (as Logo), a high-level programming language widely used to teach children the foundation of coding.

(3) In printing, a logotype.

(4) An ensign, a badge of office, rank, or power (now mostly archaic except in formal use in some branches of the military.

(5) In scientific documents, a single graphic which contains one or more separate elements.

(6) As “sonic logo”, a sound or short melody associated with a brand and used in its advertising; a specific use of a jingle (the audio equivalent of a visually expressed logo).

(7) As Logo TV (spoken usually as “Logo”), a cable channel owned by Paramount Media Networks and originally focused on certain segments within the LGBTQQIAAOP community but now less specific.

1937: A clipping of logotype or logogram.  Logo was from the Ancient Greek λόγος (lógos) (translated usually as “word” but used (sometimes loosely) also in the sense of “speech, oration, discourse, quote, story, study, ratio, calculation, reason”).  As the prefix logo-, it operated as a combining form appearing in loanwords from Greek relating to “words, speech” (which produced forms such as logography) and the formation of new compound words (such as logotype).  A logogram is a character or symbol (usually non-alphanumeric but this is a practice rather than a definitional rule) which represents a word or phrase.  When used in the context of a word-game or puzzle, it should be styled as a logogriph.  In typography, a logotype is a single type combining two or more letters (the synonym being ligature (from the Middle English ligature, from the Middle French ligature, from the Late Latin ligātura, from the Classical Latin ligātus, past participle of ligāre (to tie, bind))) while in symbolism (usually but not necessarily commercial) it’s a symbol or emblem used as a trademark or a means of identification of an institution or other entity (the clipped form logo is almost universal in this context (and technically a synonym).  Logo is a noun; the noun plural is logos.

Lohanic logo: Lindsay Lohan’s corporate logo.

The IBM Logo

Good: The IBM logo in approved positive & reversed color schemes.

Known internally as the “8-bar”, the design of the IBM logo dates from 1972 and remains in its original form.  Despite the visual perception, the stripes alternate in height (the ratio being 11/10 or 10/11), something done to ensure they appear to be the same and whether the solid or the unfilled space is rendered larger depends on whether a light or dark background is used.  The other adjustment which is not immediately obvious is the variation in the points used in the counter shapes; the positive a sharp, the reversed more blunt.  The difference is too subtle to be noticed at a glance and again, is a designer’s technique to ensure optical integrity is maintained on both light & dark backgrounds.

Bad: Ways the IBM logo should not be deployed.

It’s apparently not an apocryphal tale there was a time when the only acceptable dress for men working for IBM was a blue suit and a white shirt.  That was relaxed but the rules regarding the use of the logo remain as stringent as ever and the preferred “core colors” come exclusively from the blue and gray families, the cautionary note added that while dark or light background colors both work well with the core colors, there must always be a minimum of five “steps” (the graduation of shades) between foreground and background colors to ensure an appropriate contrast and legibility. Any background color from the IDL color palette with sufficient contrast may be used with a core color 8-bar logo. Here are a few examples of possible color combinations.  Unapproved color combinations are banned as is the use of more than one color or any progression of gradients in the stripes.  Alignment is also specifically defined.  The 8-bar logo has both horizontal and vertical relationships with other objects (brand logotypes et al) which appear in the same image and the IBM logo is based on the cap height of the logotype or can scale larger by a defined ratio and must not be placed in containers of any shape.

Although the company traces it lineage to 1888 (by virtue of M&A activity), it was in 1924 the Computing-Tabulating-Recording Company (CTR) changed its name to International Business Machines (IBM) and the first logo used the whole name, stylized in the shape of a globe.  The present logo is an evolution of two earlier (1947 & 1956) designs which used solid text although the aspect ratios were essentially the same.

The logo you have when you’re not having a logo: McLaren MP4/4 (top) and Jordan EJ13 (bottom).  Around the turn of the century when Western governments began to extend the bans of print and television advertising for cigarettes to sporting sponsorship, the Formula One constructors found a loophole, removing the text while keeping the color schemes.  Semiotically, it worked well because Marlboro’s white chevron on a red background was so distinctive the message was conveyed even without the name.  Jordan, which ran with Benson & Hedges livery, changed the text to Be on Edge (BE(ns)ON (& H)EDGE(s) which was a nice touch.  The regulators amended their rules so outfits like fossil fuel companies took over the role.  They’ll be the next to be cancelled.

All publicity is good publicity: The Westinghouse logo on the hood of Caryl Chessman (1921–1960), gas chamber at San Quentin Prison, California, 2 May 1960.  The hoods were used to prevent the accumulation of cyanide particles in the hair.

Perimeter & Parameter

Perimeter (pronounced puh-rim-i-ter)

(1) A line bounding or marking off an area; any boundary around.

(2) The outermost limits.

(3) In geometry, the border or outer boundary of a two-dimensional figure (the sum of the lengths of the segments that form the sides of a polygon.

(4) The total length of such line; the total length of any such closed curve, such as the circumference of a circle.

(5) In military jargon a fortified boundary that protects a position.

(6) In clinical ophthalmology, an instrument for determining the peripheral field of vision.

(7) In basketball, a semicircular line on a basketball court surrounding the basket, outside of which field goals are worth three points rather than two (also called three-point line).

(8) The area outside this line (often used attributively).

1585–1595: From the French périmètre (circumference, outer boundary, or border of a figure or surface), from the feminine Latin form perimetros, from the neuter Greek perímetron (circumference), the construct being peri- (around; about) + -meter from metron (measure), from the primitive Indo-European root me- (to measure).  The military sense of “boundary of a defended position” is said by some sources to have come into use only by 1943 despite the tactic being probably the second oldest military procedure still in use (the attack presumably the first).  Whether coincidental or not, the ultimate failure of perimeter defense was what finally led to the success of the Soviet offensive against the Nazi Sixth Army in Stalingrad (now Volgagrad) in 1943.  The technical terms created by the use of perimeter as a modifier include perimeter check (a patrol which checks to ensure a defensive perimeter remains in place) & perimeter fence.  Perimeter & perimetry are nouns, perimetral, perimetric & perimetrical are adjectives and perimetrically is an adverb; the noun plural is perimeters.

Parameter (pronounced puh-ram-uh-tuhr (U) or puh-ram-i-ter (non-U)

(1) In mathematics, a constant or variable term in a function that determines the specific form of the function but not its general nature, as a in f(x) = ax, where a determines only the slope of the line described by f(x).  (A value kept constant during an experiment, equation, calculation or similar, but varied over other versions of the experiment, equation, calculation etc).

(2) In mathematics, one of the independent variables in a set of parametric equations.

(3) In geometry, in the ellipse and hyperbola, a third proportional to any diameter and its conjugate, or in the parabola, to any abscissa and the corresponding ordinate.

(4) In crystallography, the ratio of the three crystallographic axes which determines the position of any plane; the fundamental axial ratio for a given species.

(5) In statistics, a variable entering into the mathematical form of any distribution such that the possible values of the variable correspond to different distributions (any measured quantity of a statistical population that summarizes or describes an aspect of the population).

(6) In computing, a variable that must be given a specific value during the execution of a program or of a procedure within a program.

(7) Limits or boundaries; guidelines; specifications; any constant, definitional or limiting factor (usually in the plural parameters).

(8) Characteristic or a factor; an aspect or element.

(9) In computing syntax for various purposes, an input variable of a function definition, that become an actual value (argument) at execution time (an actual value given to such a formal parameter).

1650-1660: From the French paramètre, from the New Latin parametrum (parameter), the construct being the Ancient Greek παρα- (para-) (beside, subsidiary) + μέτρον (métron) (meter) (measure), from the primitive Indo-European root me- (to measure).  The words was almost exclusive to mathematics & geometry until the late 1920s when it came to be extended to “measurable factor(s) which help to define a particular system", hence the now common alternative meaning “boundary, limit, characteristic factor” (under the influence of perimeter which used a similar spelling and (at least conceptually) could be understood to enjoy some overlap of meaning.  Although the wider definition has been in use since the 1950s, purists have never approved.  Parameter is a noun and parametric & parametrical are adjectives; the noun plural is parameters.

Parameters and perimeters

The more modern ways “parameter” has been used since the early twentieth century does offend the linguistically more fastidious but it seems clear the innovations are here to stay.  Some do however just get it wrong and university lecturers in the social sciences seem to be those who bear the heaviest burden of training a certain number of their institution’s first year students in the correct use of “parameter” & “perimeter”.  That they are sometimes confused is understandable because the spellings are so close and there is some sense of overlap in the meanings, both able to be used in a way which defines limits.  The definitions can be reduced to: (1) perimeter refers to either something physical (a national border; a fence etc) or a representation of something physical (lines on a map; the four sides of a square etc) whereas (2) a parameter is an element of specification, a constant or variable value which can be either an absolute value or a range.  So, a perimeter may be drawn on the basis of certain parameters while the values of parameters will in some cases exist within certain perimeters.  Definitions such as that are vague enough for those so inclined to find contradictions but for the way most people, most of the time (correctly) use parameter & perimeter, it seems serviceable.

Lindsay Lohan and her lawyer in court, Los Angeles, December 2011.

Dunbar

Dunbar (pronounced duhn-bahr)

(1) A proper noun (given and surnames, town & locality names et al).

(2) As Dunbar's number, a suggested cognitive limit to the number of people with whom one can maintain stable social relationships (those in which an individual knows who each person is and how each person relates to every other person).

Pre 1100: From a Boernician family in ancient Scotland who are the ancestors of those who first used the name Dunbar. They lived in the barony of Dunbar on the North Sea coast near Edinburgh. The construct of the place name is from the Gaelic dùn (a fort) + barr (top; summit).  The surname Dunbar was created by the eleventh century barony of Dunbar in the Lothians, created when Cospatrick fled to Scotland after being deprived of his Earldom of Northumberland by William the Conqueror.

Dunbar’s Number

British anthropologist Robin Dunbar (b 1947) explored the idea there might be a relationship between brain size and social group size through his studies of non-human primates.  This ratio was mapped using neuroimaging and the observation of time devoted to important social behaviour among primates.  Dunbar concluded that the size (relative to body mass) of the neocortex (the part of the brain associated with cognition and language) is linked to the size of a cohesive social group.  This ratio is a measure of the complexity a social system can handle.

Using this mathematical model, Dunbar applied the principle to humans, examining historical, anthropological and contemporary psychological data about group sizes, including how big groups get before they fragment, split off or collapse, finding a remarkable consistency around the number one-hundred and fifty (150).  The 150 number appears to apply to early hunter-gatherer societies and an array of more modern formations: offices, communes, factories, residential campsites, military organisations, medieval English villages and even Christmas card lists.  Where the number exceeds 150, network cohesion reduces.

Others have done research in this area and their theories tend to suggest the tightest circle has just 5 (loved ones) followed by successive layers of 15 (close friends), 50 (friends), 150 (meaningful contacts), 500 (acquaintances) and 1500 (those you can recognise).  People migrate in and out of these layers, but the idea is that space has to be carved out for any new entrants.  Dunbar offered no suggestion why these layers exist in multiples of five, but noted it did seem fundamental to monkeys and apes and most research indicated this was replicated in human relationships.  Dunbar’s 150 number is contested within the discipline although most in the field concur there probably is a Dunbarian number.  However, reducing it to a mean value may not be a helpful model of social interaction because connections aren’t normally distributed (shaped like a bell curve), a few people with massive or tiny numbers of contacts tending to distort the result.  There are also critiques on methodological grounds. Primates’ brain sizes are influenced by other aspects besides social complexity and social capacity can be stretched in different cultural settings, especially with the advent of newer technologies.

There are friends and there are followers and there is no such thing as a Dunbar number for followers; one can certainly suffer a surplus of "friends" but one can never have too many "followers".

People had friends before there was Facebook but the platform’s use of “friends” as the original prime identifier of a linkage with another did annoy those who thought “acquaintances” should have been offered as an alternative and had Facebook’s founders known what was to come, they might have done things a little differently.  However, because of Facebook’s origins as a parochial system peculiar to a single educational institution, the use of “friend” at the time certainly reflected the purpose and the approach was little difference to the other embryonic social media platforms early in the twenty-first century.  Once deconstructed, the structural similarities between Facebook, Bebo, Friendster, hi5 and MySpace were quite striking but Facebook flourished and the others did not.  There were many reasons for this but Facebook certainly benefited from learning from the mistakes of those who came first and their product offered a better experience for users who clearly preferred ease of navigation and simplicity of use compared to extensive (and not always intuitive) configurability.  Having a large group of Harvard University students as a beta test group proved invaluable and unlike others, what Facebook had from day one of its general release was a product which was inherently global and scalable.

Had the evolution of the socials been predictable, Facebook might well from the start have had “customers” and “acquaintances” as well as “friends” and it probably would also have allowed the addition of “followers”, now one of the core measures in the ecosystem.  The difference between “friends” and “followers” is that friends are presumed to enjoy a mutual connection and the establishment of the relationship needs mutual consent while followers may attach themselves of their own volition; friends are thus symmetrical, followers inherently an asymmetric concept although it’s known many Facebook accounts have friend counts which suggest the user is accumulating them essentially as followers.

“Friend” has before been used in novel (frankly Orwellian) ways.  The head of the Nazi SS (the Schutzstaffel (protection squad), a paramilitary formation which became an economic empire and in wartime eventually morphed into a parallel army close to a million-strong), Heinrich Himmler (1900–1945; Reichsführer SS 1929-1945), also coordinated an interesting aggregation of individuals and institutions styled the Freundeskreis Reichsführer SS (Circle of Friends of the Reichsführer SS (FRFSS)).  The origins of the FRFSS lay in the Freundeskreis der Wirtschaft (Circle of Friends of the Economy), a kind of combination of think tank and slush fund, the money provided by those in industry or the finance sector who either wished to support the party or anticipated them gaining power and wished to be on the winning side.  Himmler’s power grew during the 1930s but many of his grand designs (a good number of them crackpot schemes) hadn’t proceeded beyond the planning stage because of a lack of funds, the resources of the state directed primarily towards re-armament.  In re-constituting the Circle of Friends of the Economy as the FRFSS, funds became available on the basis of mutual interest, Himmler as the coordinator of repression in the Nazi state able to use the SS to deliver cheap labor (mostly from concentration camps) in exchange for the money and technical assistance he needed to build the economic enterprises he intended to create to make the SS independent of the state.  In this hunt he faced some competition from others, notably Hermann Göring (1893–1946; leading Nazi 1922-1945, Hitler's designated successor & Reichsmarschall 1940-1945) who led an expensive lifestyle as well as needing money for his industrial empire.  Himmler’s Dunbar number has never been certain but it’s believed the number of friends in the FRFSS never exceeded a few dozen.